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KMXTH

THE

COMPLETE

WEATHER GUIDE.

THE

COMPLETE

WEATHER GUIDE:

A COLLECTION OF

PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS
FOR PROGNOSTICATING THE WEATHER,

DRAWN FROM PLANTS, ANIMALS, INANIMATE
BODIES, AND ALSO BY MEANS OF PHI-
' LOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS;

Including

* THE SHEPHERD OP BANBURY'S

RULES,

EXPLAINED ON PHILOSOPHICAL PRINCIPLES.

WITH

AN APPENDIX

OF MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON METEOROLOGY,

».

^ , A CURIOUS ..-"

BOTANICAL CLOCK,

^ - &c. &c. &c.

By JOSEPH TAYLOR.

LONDON :

PRINTED FOR JOHN HARDING, 36, ST. JAMES'S STREET.

1812.

[Entered at Stationers 9 Hall.']

2 1 AUG 1963 |

/.- r-

s ** /u

Harding and Wright, Printers, St. John's Square, London.

— «a»«- --

TABLE

CONTENTS.

PAGE*

PREFACE . . . . ? 1

INTRODUCTION ....... 3

PART I.

Observations, bt which to judge of
the changes of the weather, dedu-
ced from the appearances of nature 1 5
Section I. Changes of weather indicat-
ed by vegetables • • ibid.

Section II. Changes of weather, indi-
cated by animals . , 18

Prelimioary Observations ibid.

Common and familiar signs exhibited by
animals, which indicate approaching
changes of weatlier i . 99

»-

Yi CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Section III. Changes of weather, indi-
cated from the appearances of the at-
mosphere, the earth, seasons, <&c. • • 28
$ 1. Changes indicated by clouds . . • • 30

2. The nature of the four principal winds,

and their effects 3i

3. Other signs announcing changes of the

weather, from the appearance of the
earth, &c 39

4. Indications afforded by an attentive

observance of the seasons .... 43
&. Observations on the moon's influence

on the weather • 46

Conjectures on the periods of rain • • 5S
Influence of the moon in regard to ex-
traordinary years .54-

Rules by Lord Bacon, for prognosticat-
ing the weather from the appearance
of the moon 56

PART II.
Observations on the changes of the

weather, indicated by means of the
barometer, and other philosophi-
cal instruments 69

Section I. Of the barometer .... 70
II. Of the hygrometer • ... 70

CONTENTS. tB

PAGE.

III.' The rain-gauge .... 88
IV. Of the thermometer ... 90

PART III.

The Shepherd of Banbury's rules, bt
which to judge of the changes of
the weather, (grounded on fortt
tears' experience,) methodized And
arranged under distinct he ads.

Section I r Prognostics of the weather,

taken from the sun, moon, and stars • . 95
II. Prognostics of the weather,

taken from the clouds 98

III. Prognostics of the weather,
taken from mist 105

IV. Prognostics of the weather,
taken from rain Ill

V. Prognostics of the weather,
taken from the wind ....... 118

VI. Prognostics of the weather,
taken from the seasons 134

Tiii CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

MlSCELLANEOUSOBSERVATIONS NOT RE.
FERIBLETO ANT OF THE PRECEDING
PARTS OR SECTIONS.

I. Obserrations oq the winds . . . .141

1 . Sea and land breezes 142

2. The trade- winfo 143

3. Direction of the winds . ' . . 144

II. Obserrations on lightning . . . .147

III. Water. spouts . 148

IV. Nautical observations may be made

from aquatic plants 150

V. Miscellaneous observations on plants . 152

Horologe or Botanical Watch . .155

VI. Important remark on early rising . . 158

^•^MMPV^

PREFACE.

The, phenomena of the weather hare, at all
times, attracted much of the attention of man*
kind ; because their subsistence and their com.
fort in a great measure depended on them. It
was not, however, until the seventeenth century,
that any considerable progress was made in. In*
vestigating the laws of meteorology ; — a aubjecty
of all others, the most interesting to farmers,' and
to the agricultural interest in genera]. Since
that time, philosophers hire been enabled to
'make numerous and accurate meteorological ob»
serrations ; which hare been collected from time

to time, and many important practical results hare
been deduced therefrom.

The design of the present publication is, to
collect such observations as may be depended on,
and to bring together such a variety of important
information on the state of the weather, as may
enable those, who are interested in agricultural
pursuits, profitably to .regulate the management
and housing' of their crops.

The Work consists of three principal parts.

I. Observations indicating the probable changes
of the weather from the appearances of nature.
• II. Observations prognosticating such changes,
from philosophical instruments.

III. " The Shepherd of Banbury's rules to
judge of the changes of the weather."

Who the shepherd- of Banbury was, we know
not ; nor indeed have we any proof that the
rules called his, were penned by a real shepherd :
both these points are however immaterial : their
truth is their best voucher. Mr. Claridge,
(who published them in the year 1744,) states,
that they are grounded on forty years ezperi.
•nee, and thus, jery rightly, accounts for the

presumption in their favour. u The shep-
herd," he remarks, " whose sole business it is
" to observe what has a reference to the flock
" under his care, who spends all his days, and
" many of his nights in the open air, under the
" wide. spread canopy of Heaven, is obliged to
" take particular notice of the alterations of the
" weather ; and when he comes to take a pleasure
" in making such observations, it is amazing how
" great a progress he makes in them, and to how
" great a certainty he, arrives at last, by mere
u dint of comparing signs and events, and cor.
" recting one remark by another. Every thing,
" in time, becomes to him a sort of weather-gage.
" The sun, the moon, the stars, the clouds, the
" winds, the mists, the trees, the flowers, the
u herbs, and almost every animal with which he
"is acquainted, all these become, to such a.per-
" son, instruments of real knowledge."

As the. shepherd's rules were originally pub*
Mshed without much regard to order, they are
now methodized under distinct heads, and are
either confirmed by facts and collateral observa-
tions, or are explained on the principles of the

b 2^

latest discoreries ; with which the original edi-
tor appears to have been unacquainted, or omit,
ted to notice.

An Appendix is subjoined, containing some
miscellaneous hints, which are not strictly refer-
able to either of the preceding heads : a copious
Index closes the work, which is now, with de-
ference, offered to the attention of a liberal public
in general, and more especially to the agricultu-
ral interest.

INTRODUCTION.

JL hb adrantages arising from a foreknowledge
of the changes of the weather, were duly ^.. . f
appreciated by the ancients, in whose writings' "3a,

many valuable hints hare been preserved : and,
though ill-founded predictions, in more recent
times, have cast some discredit on the study of
the changes of the weather ; yet it is evident to
the diligent observer of nature, that a consider,
able degree of certainty is attainable, both in tra.
cing the causes, and also in foreseeing the sue
cession of those changes. The experienced fish,
•rman, from his constant observance of the sky,

b 3

will rarely unfurl his sails when a storm is ap-
proaching ; and, in like manner, if farmers were
equally attentive, and had acquired equal judg-
ment in this art, they would as seldom be over,
taken by unexpected changes.

They must not however at all times look so
high, as to neglect what passes around them
on the surface of the earth. The vegetation
of plants, especially of the natives of each
country, is a kalendar well worthy of observa-
tion, as a directory of the seasons proper for cer-
tain works in the spring : nor should the acci-
dents which happen to even the least useful
plants be neglected, because they may afford
hints of what should be done to prevent similar
evils in those of greater utility.

Linnaeus and his disciples have given excellent
instructions on this head. One of them in par-
ticular, Mr. Harold Barck*, states that it was
then the fourth year since that illustrious botanist
exhorted his countrymen to observe with all care

* Dissertation on the Foliation of Trees, presented in,
1753 to the university of Upsal, then under the presidency
of Unnseus himself.

and diligence, at what time each tree expands its
bads, and unfolds its leaves ; justly conceiving
that his country, (and the remark is applicable
to every other,) might reap* some benefit, from
similar observations made in different places. As
one of the apparent advantages, he advises the
prudent husbandmau to watch with the greatest
care the proper time for sowing ; because this,
with the divine assistance, produces plenty of
provision, and lays the foundation of the public
welfare of the state, and of the private happiness
of the people. The ignorant farmer, continues
he, tenacious of the ways and customs of his an-
cestors, fixes his sowing-season generally to a
month, and sometimes to a particular day, with,
out considering whether the earth be duly pre-
pared to receive the seed: hence it frequently
happens, that the fields do not yield a produce
correspondent to his sanguine expectations. The
wise economist should therefore fix certain signs
by which to judge of the proper time for sowing*
We look up to the stars, and, without reason,
suppose that the changes on earth will answer to t
the heavenly bodies; entirely neglecting the

b 4

things which grow around us. We see trees open
their buds, and their leaves expand, whence we
conclude that the spring is approaching, and ex.
perience supports us in the conclusion; bat no
one has yet been able to shew what trees Provi.
dence intended should be our kalendar, so that
we might ascertain on what day the countryman
ought to sow his grain. Neither can it be de-
nied but that the same power, which brings forth
the leaves of trees, will also cause the grain to ve.
getate : nor can any one justly assert that a pre*
mature sowing will uniformly accelerate a ripe
harvest. No means therefore seem to promise
success so much, as the taking of our rule for
sowing from the leafing of trees. With this view
it must be observed in what order every tree
puts forth its leaves, according to its species, the
heat of the atmosphere, and the quality of the
soil. Afterwards by comparing together theiob-
jtervations of several years, it will not be difficult
to determine, from the foliation of trees, (if not
certainly, at least probably), the time when an.
nt i a | plants ought to be sown. It will be neces-
sary likewise 1° remark what sowings made in
different parts of the spring produce' foe best

•*.•

crops, in order that by comparing these with the
leafing ef trees, it may appear which, is the most
proper time for sowing : nor will it be amiss in
like manner to note at what times certain plants,
especially the most remarkable in every province
or country, blow; in order that it may be lyiown
whether the year makes a quicker or slower pro-
gress.

Linnaeus's method of carefully bbserving the
foliation of trees, &c. would undoubtedly deter-
mine the proper titae for spring-sowing; and
Pliny, after mentioning the several constellations
by which farmers were guided in his time, in.
structs the husbandman with regard to autumnal
sowing, upon a principle similar to that of our
great modern naturalist. " Why," says he,*
" doeathe husbandman look up to the stars, of
<c which he is, ignorant, whilst e^ery hedge and
" tree point out the season by the fall of their
" leaves? This circumstance will indicate the
" temperature of the air in every climate, and
" shew whether the season be early or late.
" This constitutes an universal rule, for the

* Nat. Hist b. xviii. ch. 25.
B 5

u whale world ; because trees shed their leaves
" in every country according to the difference
" of the seasons. This gives a general signal
" for sowing ; nature declaring, that she has
" then covered the earth against the inclemency
u of the winter, and enriched it with this ma-
u nure."

An accurate observer of nature, (the late Mr.
Stillingfleet,) has related, that he himself was
told by a common husbandman in Norfolk, that
when the oak catkins begin to shed their seed, it
is a proper time to sow barley : " And why,"
adds he, very properly, " may not some other
(( trees serve to direct the farmer for the sowing
" of other seeds ? The prudent gardener never
" ventures to put his house plants out till the mul.
44 berry leaf is of a certain growth." Hesiod, he
continues,*, began to fix the proper season for
ploughing, sowing, &c. by the appearance of
birds of passage, or of insects, or by the flower-
ing of plants ; but we have no record of observa*
tions of this kind being made till Linnaeus wrote.
Hesiod says, that when the voice of the crane is

• MUcelL Tracts, 8vo. .p. 14Z.

. 11

heard over-head, then is the time for ploughing ;
that if it should happen to rain three days toge-
ther when the cuckow sings, late sbwing will then
be as good as early sawing ; that when snails be-
gin to creep out of their holes, and climb up
plants, it is time to cease digging about the vine.

There is a wonderful coincidence, which pro-
bably takes place in all s countries, between vege-
tation and the arrival of certain birds 9/ passage*
Linnaeus says, that the wood- anemone (in Swe-
den) blows from the time of the arrival of the
swallow; and Mr. Stillingfleet finds by a diary
which he kept in Norfolk for the year 1755, that
the swallow appeared there on the 6th of April,
and the wood-anemone was in bloom on the 10th
of the same month. Linnaeus observes, that the
Marsh-marigold blows when- the cuckow sings;
and Mr. Stillingfleet finds by his diary, that the
Marsk-mafigold was in blossom on the 7th of
April, and the cuckow sung the same day.

The methods, here hinted at, deserve the most
serious attention : a series of similar observations,
properly made by intelligent persons, in different
parts, and afterwards rightly compared and com-

b 6

1. ,

bined, would soon afford almost infallible roles
to guide the husbandman in one of the most
important parts of agriculture.

The principal points necessary in making such
observation? are, 1st, That they be continued for
a due length of time, and that the time and place
of observation be particularly specified : 2dly,
That they may be made on the same subjects :
and 3dly, # That the soil and exposure be care-
fully noticed and described, in order to their be.
ing duly compared with the field intended to be
sown. The necessity of being as exact as pos-
sible in this last article, will appear to every one
who does but consider, what all know, that the
north-windy shade, and a moist soil, hinder the
leafing of trees, as much as a drtf j&Qmtion on
the slope of a tiiH inclining tt> the sofyJjKfcomdtes
it. — Another circumstance'which' wornc? greatly
facilitate the application of these observations, is,
to take the trees in their progressive order of
leafing : for nature is always regular, and the
guide would then be sure.

Among the various phenomena, which atten-
tive observers have found to indicate the ap.

\ .

preaching changes in the atmosphere^ the follow-
ing may be considered as affording the most cer-
tain signs.

I. From Vegetables,

II. From Animals. i

III. From the Atmosphere.

IV. From the Seasons.

V. From appearances presented by philoso-
phical instruments, which hare been invented for
the express purpose of exhibiting the state of the
weather, and its approaching variations.

Each of these articles, it is attempted to illus-
trate in the following sections; which will be
terminated by some miscellaneous information,
not strictly referable to either of the former heads.

. A

WEATHER GUIDE,

Sfc.

PART I.

OBSERVATIONS, BY WHICH TO JUDGE OP
THE CHANGES OF THE WEATllER, DE-
DUCED FROM THE APPEARANCES OF
NATURE.

SECTION I.

CHANGES OF WEATHER, INDICATED BT VEGETABLES*

Chickweed — is an excellent out-of-door ba-
rometer. When the flower expands boldly and
fully, no. rain will happen for four hours or up*
wards : if it continues in that open state, no rain
will disturb the summer's day : when it half con-

, 16

ceals its miniature flower, the day is generally
showery ; but if it entirely shuts up, or veils the
white "flower with its greed mantle, let the tra-
veller put on his great co&t, and the ploughman
with his beasts of draught, expect rest from their
labour.

Siberian Sow Thistle. — If the' flowers of
this plant keep open all night, rain will certainly
fall the next day.

The different species of Trefoil always con*

" tract their leaves at the approach of a storm : —

so certainly does this tak'e place, that these plants

have been termed " The Husbandman?* Baro.

meter."

African Marygold.— If this plant opens not
its flowers in the morning about seven o'clock,
you may be sure it will rain that day, unless it
thunders.

The Convolvulus also, and the Pimpernel
(Anagalli$),fo\d up their leaves on the approach
of rain, the last in particular is termed the poor
man's weather glass.

White Thorns and Dog-rose Bushes.—
Wet summers are generally attended with an

unusual quantity of seed on these shrubs : whence
- their unusual fruitfuiness is a sign of a severe
winter.

Beside these, there are several plants,* espe-
cially those with compound yellow flowers, which
nod and during the whole day turn their flowers
towards the sun ; viz. to the east in the morning,
to the south at noon, and to the west towards even-
ing; this is very observable in the sonchus arvcru
sis or sow" thistle : — and it is a well known feet,
that a great part of the plants in a serene sky ex-
pand their flowers, and as it were with cheerful
looks behold the light of the sun ; but before rain
they shut them up, as the tulip. — The flowers
of the tfraba alpma, alpine whitlow grass, the
parthenHtm,folw ovaiis crenatis, or bastard fever-
few with egg-shaped crenated leaves, and the tru
entali* or winter-green, hang down in the night,
as if the plants were asleep, lest rain or the moist
air should injure the fertilising dust— The trefoils,
and one species of wood sorrel, also shut up or
double their leaves before storms and tempests, bat

* We are indebted for these remarks to Dr. Thornton**
•plemtid " Illustration of the Sexual System of Lumens,*

in a serene sky expag^i or unfold them, so that the
husbandman can pretty clearly foretel tempests
from them. — It is also well known that the
bavhinia, or mountain ebony, sensitive plants and
cassia, observe the same role.

SECTION II.

CHANGES, OF WEATHER, INDICATED BY AM MALI.

Preliminary Observations*

The fluids and solids of organised beings, and
their animal machines, are constructed in such a
manner, that a certain degree of motion puts
them in a good state, while an augmentation or
diminution of it deranges or destroys that state*
The fluids (which by their nature are easily
moved,) as well as the fibres (which are highly
susceptible of irritation,) are readily affected by
changes of the surrounding atmosphere, and

suffer from the impression, whether the air
varies in its weight, or qualities, or is changed in
regard to its elasticity. Among those who are
sound and in perfect health, we find vivacity,
good spirits, and great agility, when the air is
pare and elastic; on the other hand, when the
air becomes light and damp, and is deprived of
its elasticity, it throws the body into a state of
languor and debility. Valetudinarians, whose
constitutions are delicate, or who are advanced
'in life, are much soouer sensible of the impres-
sions occasioned by the weather, than those who
ace strong and robust. In generaJL the senses of
men, who in their way of life deviate from the
simplicity of nature, are coarse, dull, and void
of energy. Those also, who are distracted by a
thousand other objects, scarcely feel the impres-
sion of the air, ,and if they speak of it to
fill np a vacuum in their miserable and frivolous
conversation, they do it without thinking of its
causes or effects, and without ever paying atten.
tion to them. But animals. — which retain their
natural instinct, which have their organs better
constituted, and their senses in a more perfect

«0

state, and besides are not changed by vicious and
depraved habits,— perceive sooner, and are more
susceptible of the impressions produced in them
by variations of the atmosphere, and sooner ex-
hibit signs of them.

Until the discovery of animal el ectrick^ little
attention was paid to those signs, which were
consequently ascribed to a certain natural pre-
science. But, as the electric matter issuing from
the earth diffuses itself through the atmosphere,
it must penetrate and agitate the fraiL machines
in question, and as ft carries with it vapours and
exhalations of various kinds, these must pro*
dace, on machines so delicate, different sensa-
tions, which, make them move in it different
manner; and, according as they receive impres-
sions agreeable or troublesome, they exhibit
signs of joy or sadness ; send forth cries, or are
silent; move or remain at rest, as is observed in
all kinds of animals, without excepting man,
when the weather is about to change.

In the last place, internal and animal electri-
city, which in all probability is the agent of life,
and the grand source of organic motion, must

be as much subject to modifications as the ex.
'ternal electricity, from which it acquires new
force and activity, by the yapours and humidity
of the atmosphere, which absorbing the electric
matter in abundance, or serving it as a conductor,
draw it off from the animal machine* Hence
arises that languor and debilky, which are ex*
perienced during wet weather arid when the
south winds prevail ; and for the same reason,
the moisture which has penetrated the organs, at
least such as are weak, or have suffered any
hurt or injury, or been exposed to some new
agitation, produces uneasiness, and occasions
pain. It is difficult to explain clearly and with
precision how all this takes place ; that is, how
the electricity is excited, and by what mechanism
exhalations and vapours affect animals, and pro*
duce changes in their bodies, since we are not
acquainted with the curious organisation of the
most delicate parts of these machines ; but we can
observe and perceive the progress of these phe-
nomena) as. well as those by which they are
produced.

Common and familiar Signs exhibited by Anu
mate, which indicate approaching Changes
of the Weather^

1. When bats remain longer than usual abroad
from their holes, fly about in greater numbers,
and to a greater distance than common, it an*
nounces that the following day will be warm and
serene; but if they enter their houses, and send
forth loud and* repeated cries, it indicates bad
weather.

2. If the owl is heard to scream during bad
~ weather, it announces that it will soon become

fine.

3. The croaking of crows indicates fine
weather.

4. When the raven croaks three or four times,
extending his wings and shaking the leaves, it is
a sign of serene weather.

5. It is an indication of rain and stormy
weather, when ducks and geese fly backward
and forward ; when they plunge frequently into
the water, or send forth cries, and fly about.

6*. If bees do not remove to a great distance

* 3

from their hives, it announces rain; if they re.
turn to their hives before the usual time, it may
be concluded it will soon fall. On the contrary,
if they fly far from their hives, and return home

■

late, they foretel very fair and hot weather.

7. If pigeons return slowly to the pigeon,
house, it indicates that the succeeding day will
be rainy.

8. It is n sign of rain or wind when sparrows
chirp a great deal, and make a noise to each
other to assemble.

9. When fowls and chickens roll in the sand
more than usual, it announces rain : — so, if poul-
try go to roost ; — if tame fowls grub in the dust
and clap their wings, small birds seem to duck
and wash in the sand ; — if cocks crow late and
early, or. at uncommon hours, clapping their -
wings ; — if the red-breast be seen near houses ;
—all these are indications that rain is not far
distant.

- 10. Peacocks, which cry during the night,
have a presentiment of rain.

1 1 • It is believed to be a sign of bad weather
when the swallows fly in such a manner as to

♦
i

' «4

brash the surface of the water, and to touch it
frequently with their wings and breast.

12. The weather is about to become cloudy,
and to change for the worse, when flies sting,
and are more troublesome than usual.

13. When gnats collect themselves before the
setting of the sun, and form a sort of vortex in
the shape of a column, it announces fine weather.
If they play up and down in the open air near
sun-set, they presage heat; if in the shade,
warm and mild showers; but if they join in
stinging those who pass by them, cold leather
and much raiu may be expected.

14. When sea-fowl and other aquatic birds
retire to the sea shore or marshes, it indicates a
change of weather, and a sudden storm.

15. If cranes fly exceedingly high, in silence,'
and sanded in order, it is a sign of approaching
fine weather; but, if they fly in disorder, or
immediately return with cries, it announces wind.
-—The appearance also of cranes and of other
birds of passage early in autumn, announces a
severe winter ; for it is a sign that it has already
begun in the northern countries.

16. If larks rise very high, mud continue to
sing for a long time ; — also, if kites fly aloft,-—
these are signs affair weather.

17: When dolphins sport and make frequent
leaps, the sea being tranquil and calm, it de. .
notes that the wind will blow from that quarter
from which they proceed.

_, 18. If frogs croak more than usual ;— if toads
issue from. their holes in the evening in great
numbers ; — if earth. worms come forth from the
earth; — if ants remove their eggs from their
small hills; — if moles throw up the earth more
than usual ; — if asses shake and agitate their
ears, and bray more frequently than usual ;—
if hogs shake and spoil the stalks of com;— if
bats send forth cries, and fly into the house ;
— if dogs roll on the ground, and scratch up the
earth with their fore-feet;— if cows or oxen look
towards the heavens, and turn up their nostrils as
if catching some smell j— if oxen lick their fore,
feet, and if oxen and dogs lie on their right side;
—if rats and mice are more restless than -usual ;
all these are signs which announce rain.

19. The case is the same when animals crowd
together.

20. As soon as bad weather approaches, the
ass will hang down his. ears forward, walk more
slowly than usual,, and rub himself against walls.

21. When goats and sheep are more obstinate
and more desirous to crop their pastures, and
seem to quit them with reluctance, and when the
birds return slowly to their nests, rain may be
soon expected.

' 22. An intelligent observer of Nature re-
marks " That before a change of weather,

on going to a sheep-fold, he has noticed these

otherwise still and patient creatures, running

-about in different directions, jumping from

the ground, and in their gambols apparently

.fighting ; and, previous to a deep fall of snow,

-they will clear the ground of every scrap of

turnip, or wisp of hay, within their reach ; and

retire, with accurate precision, for shelter, always

to the spot which is best able to afford it."

23. A beautiful insect called the clock beetle,
which flies about in the summer evenings in a

circular direction, with a load buzzing noise,
is said to foretel a fine day. It was consecrated
by the Egyptians to the sun : the body is often
coloured with a blueish or greenish gloss, some*
times brassy beneath.

24. The Leech. — Put a leech into, a large
phial three parts full of clear rain water, re-
gularly change the same thrice a week, and Itt it
stand on a window frame fronting the north. In
fair and frosty weather it will be motionless, and
rolled up in a spiral form, at the bottom of the
glass ; but prior to rain or snow, it will creep to
the top, where, if the rain will be heavy, and of
some continuance, it will remain a considerable
time; if trilling, it will descend. Should the
rain or snow be accompanied with wind, it wil
dart about its habitation with an amazing cele-
rity, and seldom ceases until it begins to blow
hard. If a storm of thunder or lightning be
approaching, it will be exceedingly agitated, and
express its feelings in violent convulsive starts at
the top of the glass. It is remarkable, that
however fine and serene the weather may be,
and not the least indication of a change, either

c %

from the sky, the barometer, or any other cause
whatever, yet if the animal ever shifts its posi-
tion, or moves in a desultory manner, the coin-
cident results will certainly occur within thirty*
six hours; frequently within twenty-four, and
sometimes in twelve ; though its motions chiefly
depend on the fall and duration of the wet, and
the strength of the wind*

25. In men, frequently, aches, pains, wounds,
and corns, are more troublesome, either towards
rain or towards frost. «

26. Persons of a plethoric (or full) habit of
body are frequently oppressed with drowsiness
and heavy sleep before rain falls.

SECTION III.

t CHANGE* OF WEATHER, INDICATED FROM THE AP-

PEARANCES OF THE ATMOSPHERE, THE EARTH,
SEASONS, &C. '

Evaporation is the conversion of fluids, prin-
cipally of water, into vapour ; which, becoming

specifically lighter than the atmosphere, is raised
considerably above the surface of the earthy and
afterwards by a partial condensation forms clouds*
The heat of the sun, together with that of the
electrical matter arising from the earth, is (ac-
cording to many eminent philosophers) the cause
of what Is termed Spontaneous Evaporation^
in order to distinguish it from that which is pro-
duced by artificial means. Evaporation is one
of the great chemical processes, by which Nature
supplies the whole vegetable kingdom with the
dew and rain necessary for its support : hence
it takes place at all times, not only from the
surface of the ocean, but also from that of the
earth. Nor is it confined to these : it is even
carried on from the leaves of trees, grass, &c, ^
with which the earth is covered. Great part
of the water, which is thus raised, descends
again during the night in the form of dew, being
absorbed by those vegetables which yielded it
before. One of the most beneficial effects of
evaporation is, to cool the earth, and prevent i$
from being too much heated by the sun.

§ 1. Changes indicated by the Clouds.

1. The clouds, called Cirrus , appear early after
serene weather : they are, at first, indicated by
a few threads pencilled as it were on the sky;
these increase in length, and new ones are, ill
the mean time, added laterally. Often the first
formed threads serve as stems to support nu-
merous branches, twhich in their torn give rise
to others. Their duration is uncertain, varying,
from a few minutes after their first appearance,
to an extent of many hours. It is long when
they appear alone, and at great heights ; and
shorter when they are formed lower, and in the
vicinity of other clouds. This modification,
although in appearance almost motionless, is in.
timately connected with the variable motion of
the atmosphere ; and Clouds of this kind have
long been deemed a prognostic of the wind.

2. In fair weather, with light variable breezes,
the sky is seldom quite clear from small groups
of the oblique cirrus, which frequently come on
from the leeward, and the' direction of their in-

crease is to the windward. Continued wet
weather is attended with horizontal sheets of this
cloud, which subside quickly, and pass to the
cirro-stratus. The cirrus pointing upward, is a
distant indication- of rain; aud downward, a
more immediate one of fair weather. Before
storms they appear lower and denser, and usually
in the quarter opposite to that from which the
storm arises. Steady high winds are also pre-
ceded and attended by streaks running quite
across the sky, in the direction they blow in.
These, by an optical deception, appear to meet
in the horizon.

3. The shooting or falling star, precedes a
change of wind.

4* If clouds appear gradually to diminish,
and dissolve into the air, so as to become in-
? isible, it is an indication of line weather.

5. If the sky, after being for a long time
serene and blue, become fretted and spotted
with small nndnlated clouds, not unlike the
waves of the sea, rain will speedily' follow.

6. It not unfrequently happens that two di£*
ferent currents of clouds appear: these are

e 4

certain signs of rain, particularly if the lower
current fly swiftly before the wind. Should two
such currents appear during summer, or hot
weather, they announce a speedy thunder-
storm.

7. Previously to heavy rains, especially at
the approach of a thunder-storm, each cloud
becomes larger than the former; and all are
visibly increased in size. . .

8. When the solar rays break through the
clouds, and are visible in the air, it shews that
the atmosphere is . filled with vapours, which
will speedily be converted into rain.

9. If clouds are formed like fleeces, deep and
dense (or thick and close) towards the middle,
the edges being very white, while the surround-
ing sky is very bright and blue, they are of a
frosty coldness, and will speedily fall (according
to the season) either in hail, snow, or hasty
showers of rain.

10. So, if. clouds appear high in the air, in-
thin white trains, like locks of wool, or horses 9
tails, they indicate that the vapours are spread
and scattered by contrary winds above; and

tfcit a storm of wind, probably accompanied by
rain, will soon blow below.
- 11. When the air is hazy, so that the solar
light fades gradually, and looks white, ram
will most certainly follow. ~ In like manner, if
the moon and stars grow dim in the night, and
the air also be hazy, and a halo, ring, or burr}
appear round the moon, it is a sure sign of
jeain.

12. If, in a very wet season, the sky is tinged
with a sea-green colour, near the bottom, where
it ought to be blue, it shews that rain will
speedily follow and increase : when it is of a
deep dead blue, it is overcharged with vapours,
and the weather will be showery.

13. When the sun appears white at the set-
ting, or goes down into a bank of clouds, which
lie in the horizon, they indicate the approach or
continuance of bad weather.

14. When it rains with an east wind, it will
probably continue for twenty.four hours. v

l£. The heaviest rains, when of long conti-
nuance^ generally begin with the wind blowing
easterly > which gradually veers round to the

c-5

. 4* .'

South ; and the rains do not cease, until the wind
has got to the west, or a little north-west.

16. While rain is falling, if any small space
of the sky be observable, it is almost a certain 1
Sign that the rain will speedily cease. .

17. If the clouds, that more with the wioo\
become stationary when they arrive at that part
of the horizon which is opposite to the wind,
and appear to accumulate, they announce a
speedy fall of rain,

18. A rahibow in the morning
Is the shepherd's warning:
But a rain-how at night
Is the shepherd's delight.

19. If a rain -bow appear in fair weather,
foul will follow; if in foul, fair will follow. A
double rain-bow indicates much rain.

20. Synopsis of the colours of the rain* bow.—
The purple shews wind and rain ; the dark. red,
tempestuous; — the light.red, wind; — the yel-
low shews dry weather; — the green denotes
rain ; — the blue, that the air is clearing. By a
careful observance of these colours, it may easily
be calculated what weather will follow*

21. If an Aurora Borealis appear after sete.
ral warm days, it is generally succeeded by a
coldness of the air.

22. If the Aurora Borealis has been con-
siderable, either an increased degree of cold is
immediately produced, or bodies of clouds are
formed.

% 2. The Nature of the four principal Winds,

and their Effects.

1. Subsolanus, or the east wind, is hot and
dry, temperate, sweet, pure, subtle, and health,
ful ; especially in the morning when the sun
rises, by whom it is made more pure and subtle,
expelling all ^infection. — The hoar-frost, which
is first occasioned by the east wind, indicates
that the cold will continue a long time — as was
the case in the year 1770. — This is the driest
wind, because it comes across the vast continent
of Asia, which is but little watered by rivers or
sea* #

c 6

t. %€phgru3) or the west wind, is temperate,
hot, moist and wholesome, especially in. the
evening; it dissolves the frost, ice, and snow,
and causes the flowers and grass to spring;
according to some, it produces thunder. It
eften blows rain, as it crosses the great Atlantic
ocean, and attracts a great quantity of vapours*

3. SeptentriO) or the north wind, is, for the
most part, cold and dry, repelling moisture and
rain ; and though it causes cold and numbness,
so nipping the fruits of the earth, and many
times the forward buds of the spring, yet it
drives away infections and noisome airs, and

' this is conducive to the preservation of health*
Coming from the frigid zone, this is the coldest
of all the four winds. — When- north. west and
south-east winds prevail together at two different
heights in the atmosphere, if the south-east be
the lower one, we may expect that the weather
will become clear : the contrary will take .place,
if the south-east wind be highest.

4. Auster, or Notus, the south wind, is hot
and moist,, breeding thick clouds and sickness.
This is the warmest, as it comes from the torrid

zone; a south-west wind most frequently brings
rain.

- 5. A frequent change of wind, accompanied
with an agitation of the clouds, denotes a sadden
storm.

6. A fresh breeze generally springs up before
sun-set, particularly in the summer.

7. The weather usually clears up at noon;
but, if it rain at midnight, it seldom clears up
till sun- set.

8. The winds, which begin to blow in the day-
time, are much stronger, and endure longer, than
those which begin to blow only in the night.
Violent winds usually abate towards sun-set.

9. If the wind veer about uncertainly to'va*
rious points of the compass, it is a sure sign of
rain.

10. A howling or whistling wind denotes rain*

11. If the wind follow the sun's course, fair
weather will follow.

12. Weather — either good or bad, which
takes place in the night-time, is not, in genera],
of long duration ; and, /for the most part, wind
is more uncommon in the sight than in the day

time. Fine weather in the night, with scattered
clouds, does not last.

13. Violent winds prevail more in the vicinity
of mountains than in open plains.

14. A Venetian proverb says, " That the
sudden storm from the north does not last three
days."

t 15. If it thunders in the month of December,
moderate and fine weather may be expected*

16. If it thunders at intervals in the spring-
time, before the trees have acquired leaves,
cold weather is still to be expected.

17. Thunder in the morning denotes wind at
noon; in the evening rain and tempest. — If in
summer there be no thunder, it may be expected
that the ensuing winter will be sickly.— If it
lightens on a clear star-light night, in the south
or south-east, rain and wind will follow ; if it
lighten in an evening towards the north, south,
or south-west, it indicates wind.

. 18. Hot weather generally precedes thunder,
which is followed by cold showery weather.

10. If the wind does not change, the weather
will continue the same.

r '

TO. "When the wind is south. west daring
summer or autumn, and the temperature of the
air is unusually cold for the season, both to the
feeling and the thermometer, with a low baro-
meter, much rain is to be expected.

21. Violent temperatures, as storms or great
rains, produce a sort of crisis in the atmosphere,
which produces- a constant temperature, good
or bad, for some months*

§ 3. Other signs announcing changes of the
weather y from the appearance of the earth 9
Sfc.

1. A want, or too great a quantity of dew,
being a mark of strong evaporation, announces
rain : the case is the same with thick white hoar
frost, which is only dew congealed.

2. On the other hand, when the weather in.
clines to rain, the water is seen to diminish in va-
ses and fountains : because the humidity is then
carried away fry the evaporation of the electric
matter.

3. In a morning 9 if a mist, which hangs o?er
the low lands, draws towards the high lands, it is
a sign of an approaching fine day.

4. If in the evening a white mist spread over
a meadow through which a river flows, it will be.
drawn up by the sun 1 on the following morning,
$nd a fine clear day will follow.

5. When the dew lies plentifully upon the
grass after a fine day, another fine day may be ex*
pected ; but if, after such a fair day, no dew fall
nor any breeze be stirring, it indicates that the
vapours- are ascending, and will soon be precipi-
tated in the form of rain,

6. It is certainly a surprising phenomenon to
see the earth, after very long and very abundant
rains, to be sometimes almost dry ; the roads
quite free from dirt, and the lands to become arid
and parched* This is a sign that the rain has not
altogether ceased, and denotes a continual efflux
of electric matter, which being renewed carries
with it, in the form of vapours, all the moisture
that falls on the earth.

7. There is sometimes, however, a great deal
of dirt, even after a very moderate rain, which,

in that ease, is a sign of fine weather, because it
indicates that evaporation has ceased. Dry
stones, and moist earth, announce fine weather ;
dry earth, and moist stones, announce rain.

8. If the flame of a lamp crackles or flares, it
indicates rainy weather. ••

9. The case is the same when soot detaches it-
self from the chimney and falls down.

10. It is a sign of rain, also, when the soot
collected around pots or kettles takes fire, in the
form of small points like grains of millet, because
this phenomenon denotes that the air is cold and
moist.

1 1 . If the coals seem hotter than usual, or if
the flame is more agitated, though the weather be
calm at the time, it indicates wind.

12. When the flame burns steady, and proceeds
straight upwards, it is a sign of fine weather.

13. If the sound of bells is heard at a great
distance, it is a sign of wind, or of a change of
weather.

14. The hollow sounds of forests; the murmur,
ing noise of the waves of the sea, their foaming,
and green and black colour, announce a storm.

16. Good or bad smells, seeming as if they
were condensed, are a sign of a change of wea-
ther ; either because exhalations arise and are
dispersed in more abundance, which is a sign of
an increase of elasticity ; or because the air does
not dispel or raise these exhalations, which in*
dicates that the constitution of the atmosphere is
motionless, light and void of elasticity.

16. When the spider's webs, and the leaves of
trees, are agitated without any sensible wind, it
is a sign of wind, and perhaps of rain ; because it
denotes that strong and penetrating exhalations
arise from the earth.

17. These signs are less equivocal when the
dry leaves and chaff are raised into a vortex, and
carried into the air.

.18. If salt,* marble, and glass become moist
some days before rain ; — if articles of wood,
doors, and chests of drawers swell;— if the corns
on the feet, and scars of old wounds, become
painful; — all these signs indicate that aqueous
vapours are exhaled from the earth, and are, no

* This may be ascertained in the following manner : —
lake a good pair of scales, in one «f which let there be a

doubt, directed by the electric matter which dif-
fuses itself there in greater abundance, and pene.
trates every body. Hence it happens that stones
become moist, that wood swells, and salt* be.
comes deliquescent by the moisture. When the
stones, after being moist, become dry, it is a
sign of fine weather.

$ 4. Indication*^ afforded by an attentive
observance of the seasons.

1 . If the earth and air abound with insects,
worms, frogs, locusts, &c. ; — if the walnut-tree
has more leaves than fruit ; — if tbe're are large,
quantities of beans, fruit and fish ; — if the spring
and summer are too damp ; — if hoar frost, fogs and

brass weight of one pound, and in the other a pound of
salt, or salt petre well dried ; and place a stand beneath
tlie scale, so as, to prevent it from falling too low. When
rain is approaching, the salt will swell and sink the scale;
and, as the weather grows fair, the brass Will regain its
ascendancy.

dew come on, at timet when they are not gene*
rally seen, the year will be barren ; the opposite
signs announce fertility and abundance. Ani-
mals seem also to foresee and prognosticate fertu
lity and barrenness :— It is said, that when the
birds flock together, quit the woods and islands,
and retire to the fields, Tillages and towns, it ifr
a sign that the year will be barren.

2. A great quantity of snow in winter pro-
mises a fertile year ; but abundant rains give rea-
son to apprehend that it will be barren. A win-
der, during which a great deal of snow and rain*
falls, announces a very warm summer. It is ge-
nerally believed, that thunder and storms in win.
ter prognosticate abundance, because they fer-
tilize the earth. When the spring is rainy, it
produces an abundant crop of hay, and useless
herbs ; but, at the same time, a scarcity and
dearth of grain. If it is warm, there will be plenty
of fruit ; but they will be almost all spoilt. If it
is cold and dry, there will be few fruit or grapes ;
and silkworms will not thrive. If it is only dry,
there will be few fruits, but they will be good.
In the lastplace, if it is cold, the fruit will be late
in coming to maturity.

3. A cold and windy May is favourable to
corn.'

4. If the spring and summer are both damp, -
or even both dry, a scarcity and dearth of provi-
sions, is to be apprehended. If the summer is dry
there will be little corn, diseases will also pre.
vail ; but they will be more numerous if it is
warm. If it is moderately cold, the corn will be

'late; but there w ill be a ^reat deal of it, and the
season will occasion few diseases.

5. A fine autumn announces a winter during
which winds will prevail ; if it is damp and
rainy, it spoils the grapes, injures the sown fields,
and threatens a scarcity. If it be too cold, or
too warm, it produces maladies. A long severity
of the seasons, either by winds, drought, damp-
ness, heat or cold, becomes exceeding destruc-
tive to plants and animals. In general, there is

. a compensation for rain or drought between one
season and another. A damp spring or summer
is commonly followed by a fine autumn. If the
winter is rainy, the spring will be dry ; and if
the former is dry, the latter will be damp. When
the autumn is fine, the spring will be rainy. A

■■•»--

46 -

moist autumn, with a mild winter, is generally
followed by a cold and dry spring, which great.
1/ retards vegetation. Such, according to M.
du Hamel, was the year 1741. — A severe au-
tumn announces a windy winter.

6. Intervals of clear and pleasant weather often
occur in November; and in general, the autum-
nal months are softer and less variable, than the
correspondent ones in spring.

The above alternations have, in general, been
clearly proved by the verity of a journal carried
en for forty years. ,

§ 5. Observations on the triftuence of the
moon on the weather.

The influence of the moon oa the weather
lias, in all ages, been believed by the generality
of mankind : the same opinion was embraced
by the ancient philosophers, and several emineut
philosophers of later times have thought the

opinion not unworthy of notice. Now, although
the moon only acts (as far at least as we can
ascertain) on the waters of the ocean by pro-
ducing tides ; it is nevertheless highly probable y
according to the observations of Messrs. Lam-
bert, Toaldo, and Cotte, that in consequence of
the lunar influence, great variations do take
place in the atmosphere, and consequently in the
weather. It would, indeed, extend too far the
limits necessarily assigned . to this article, td
detail the ingenious reasonings of these eminent
philosophers : but the following principles,
extracted from their profound writings, will
shew the grounds and reasons for their em-
bracing the received notions on this interesting
topic.

There are ten situations in every revolution of
the moon in her orbit when she must particularly
exert her influence on the atmosphere ; and
when, consequently, changes of the weather most
readily take place. These are,

1. The nezo> and, 2. the full moon, when she
exerts her influence in conjunction with, or in op-
position to the sun.

3. & 4. The quadratures, or those aspects of
the moon when she is 00 degrees distant from the
sun ; or when she is in the middle point of her
orbit, between the points of conjunction and op*
position, namely) in the first and third quarters*

5. The perigee, and, 6. the apogee, or those
points of the moon's orbit, in which she is at the
least and greatest distance from the earth.

The two passages of the moon over the equator,
one of which M. Toaldo calls,

7. The moon's ascending, and the other, 8.
the moon's descending equinox, or the two /«-
nistices, as M. de la Lande terms them*

9. The boreal lunistice, when the moon ap-
proaches as near as she can in. each lunation (ot
period between one new moon and another) to
our zenith (that point in the horizon which is di-
rectly over our heads*)

10* The austral lunistice, when she is at
the greatest distance from our zenith : for the ac-
tion of the moon varies greatly according to her
obliquity* With these ten points M. Toaldo
compared a table of forty-eight years 9 observa*.
lions ; the result is, that the probabilities, that

the weather will change at a certain period of the
moon, are in the following proportions :
New moon . - - 6:1
First quarter . - • - 5:2
Foil moon • - . 6:2
Last quarter - - - 5:4
Perigee - . - - 7:1

Apogee - • • 4:1

Ascending equinox • * 13 : 4
Northern lunistice • . 11 : 4
Descending equinox - - 11 : 4
Southern lunistice • - 3:1
That is to say, a person may bet six to one,
that the new moon will bring with it a change of
weather* Each situation of the moon alters that
state of the atmosphere which has been occasion-
ed by the preceding one ; and it seldom happens
that any change in the weather takes place with,
out a change ia the lunar situations. These
situations are combined, on account of the ine-
quality of their reYolutions, and the greatest*
effect is produced by the union of the syzigies*

• Sytigy, in astronomy, is a term equally used for u)#
conjunction and opposition of a planet with the son*

with the apsides.* The proportions of their power
to produce Variations are as follows :
New moon coinciding with the perigee . 38 : 1
Ditto . . • . . with the apogee 7 : 1
Full moon • • . with the perigee 10 : 1
Ditto . . . . . with the apogee 8 : 1

The combination of these situations generally
occasions storms and tempests ; and this perturb,
ing power will always have the greater effect, the
nearer these combined situations are to the moon's
passage over the equator, particularly in the
months of March and September* At the new
and full moons, in the months of March and Sep*
tember, and even at the solstices, especially the
winter solstice, the atmosphere assumes a certain
character, by which it is distinguished for three,
and sometimes six months. The new moons
which produce no change in the weather, are
those that happen at a distance from the apsides*

• Apsides, in astronomy, are applied to .two points in

the orbits of planets, in which they are at the greatest and
least distance from the sun or earth. The higher ap$is is
wore particularly denominated aphelion, or apogee ; the
lower, perihelion, or perigee.

As it is perfectly true that each situation of
the moon alters that stale of the atmosphere which
has been produced by another, it is however ob-
served that many situations of the moon are fa*
Tonrable to good, and others to bad weather.

Those belonging to the latter class are: the
perigee, new and full moon, passage of the equa.'
tor, and the northern lunistice. Those belong,
ing to the former are : the apogee, quadratures,
and the southern lunistice. Changes of the wea-
ther seldom take place on the very days of the
moon's situations, but either precede or follow
them. It has been found by observation, that
the changes effected by the lunar situations in
ihe six winter months precede, and in the six
sumhier months follow them*

Besides the lunar situations to which the above
observations refer, attention must be paid also
to the fourth day before new and full moon,
which are called the octants* At these times
the weather is .inclined to changes ; and it may
be easily seen, that these will follow at the next
lunar situation. Virgil calls this fourth day a
very suit prophet* If on that daj the horns of

d 2

.-j

the moon are clear and well defined, good wea-
ther may be expected ; but if they are doll, and
sot clearly marked on the edges, it is a sign that
bad weather will ensue. When the weather re-
mains unchanged on the fourth, fifth, and sixth
day of the moon, we may conjecture that it will
continue so till full moon, even sometimes till the
next new moon ; and in that case the lunar situa-
tions have only a very weak effect. Many ob-
servers of nature have also remarked, that the
approach of the lunar situations is 'somewhat cri-
tical for the sick.

Conjectures on the periods of rain.

The rising and setting of the moon, as well as
its superior and inferior passage of the meridian,
may serve as a rule for foretelling the times of
rain. These situations are called the moon's
angles.

The times most exposed to rain are the rising

and setting ; those most favourable to good wea-
ther, the passage of th,e meridian. It has been
remarked that, during rainy days, bad weather
js always a little interrupted about the time when
the moon passes the meridian. We must, how-
ever, make an exception to this role as often as
the angle of the moon does not coincide with that
of the ran* As these observations may be very
easily made, by means of astronomical tables, in
which the angles of the moon and sun are mark*
ed, they are exceedingly well calculated to prove
the truth of this system. No one, for instance,
will refuse assent to it, when the daily changes
correspond with the angles of the moon; and
when, independently of the effects of the moon's
situation, the horizontal effect of the moon at ris-
ing and setting is different from that produced
by its passage over the meridian. .

It rains oftener in the day time than in the
night, and oftener in the evening than in the
morning.

J> 3

Influence of the moon in regard to extraordU

nary years*

. Bad years take place when the apsides of the
noon fall In the four cardinal points of the zo-
diac* Their intervals, therefore, are as '4 to 5,
8 to 9, &c. or as the intervals of the passage of
the apsides through the four cardinal points oC
the zodiac. Thus the year 1777 was, in gene*
ral, a bad year ; and in that year the apsides ofc
the moon were in the equinoctial signs $ and it i$
probable that the years in which the apsides fall
in the signs T4ur$s, X*o, Y*t%o and Aquarius,
will be good and moderate years, as the year
1770 really was ; and in that year the apsides of
the moon were in Taurus and Virgo.

Every eighteenth year must be similar. We,
however, cannot depend upon a return altoge.
ther the same, on account of the three different
revolutions of the moon ; and therefore it may
happen, that the epoch of this extraordinary year
may be retarded a year or perhaps two. Though
approximations only are here given, this does not

< .

prevent their being useful to farmers, if they onljr
pay attention to circumstances. Besides, vari.
ous exceptions must be made for different parts
of the earth ; and it is difficult to determine these
beforehand, as what regards this system is appli.
cable to the whole globe; but when the result of
the system has been improved by local observa.'
tions, the conjectures for each country will be at-
tended with more certainty.

The fifty- fourth year must have a greater simi-
larity to the first than all the rest; because, at
this period, the situations of the moon, in regait}
to the sun and the earth, are again found in the
Same points.

The quantity of the rain which falls in nine
successive years Is almost equal to that which falls
in the next following nine. But this is not the
case when we compare in like manner the quan-
tity of rain which falls in six, eight, or ten years.

D 4

Rules by Lord Bacon for prognosticating the
weather y from the appearances of the moon.

1. If the new moon does not appear till the
fourth day, it prognosticates a troubled air for
the whole month.

2. If the moon, either at her first appearance
or within a few days after, has her lower horn ob-
scured and dusky, it denotes foul weather before
the full; but, if she be discoyered about the
middle, storms are to be expected about the full ;
and, if her upper horn be affected, about the wane.

3. When on her fourth day the moon appears
pure and spotless, her horns unblunted, and
neither flat, nor quite erect, but between both, it
promises fair weather for the greatest part of the
month.

4. An erect moon is generally threatening and
unfaTOurable, but particularly denotes wind;
though, if she appears with short and blunted
horns, rain is rather to be expected.

We clow these remarks on the probable influ-
ence of the moon on the weather, with the follow*
ing Table ; which has been ascribed to the illus-
trious astronomer, Dr. Herschel** It is con.
structed upon a philosophical consideration of the
attraction of the sun and moon in their several po-
sitions respecting the earth; and, confirmed by the
experience of many years actual observation, will,
without trouble, suggest to the observer what kind
of weather will most probably follow the moon's
entrance into any of her quarters ; and that so
near the truth, that in very few instances will it
be found to fail.

* Europ. Mag. vol. 60, p. 24. The editor thinks it pro-
per to give his authority for this table, which he has long
and fruitlessly been searching in different philosophical
publications.

^j*B ft

' 1

•

• Hence, the nearer the time of the moon's en-
trance, at full and change or quarters, 19 to mid*
night (that is within two hoars before and after
midnight), the more fair the weather is in sum*
mer, but the nearer to noon the less fur. Also,
the moon's entrance, at full, change, and quar-
ters, daring six of the afternoon hours, viz. from
four to ten, nfey be followed by fair weather 5
bat this is mostly dependent on the wind. The
same entrance daring all the hours after midnight,
except the two first, is unfavourable to fair wea*
tfcer ; the like, nearly, may be observed in win*
ter.

Mr. Kirwan has lately endeavoured to discover
probable rules for prognosticating the different
seasons as far as respects Great Britain and Ire*
land, from tables of observation* atone* On per*
luingand comparing' a number of observations

token in England from 1877* to 1789, (a period
ot 1 12 years) be found :

1. That when there has been no itorm before
or after the rental equinox, the ensuing summer
is generally dry, at least fire timet in lis.

2. That when a storm happens from an easier.
\y point, either on the 19th, 20th, or 21st of
May, the succeeding summer is generally dry, at
least four times in five.

3. That when a storm arises on the 25th, 26tb,
or 27th of March (and not before) in any point,
the succeeding summer is generally fin/, four
times in fire.

4. If there be a storm at south- west, or west,
south-west, on the 19th, 20th, 21st, or 22d of
March, the succeeding summer is generally wet,
five times in six.

In this country winters and springs, if dry, are
most commonly cold; if moist, warm : — On the
contrary, dry summers and autumns are usually
hot, and moist summers cold ; so that, if we
know the moistness or dryness of a season, we

* Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. t.
s>»,4c.

can form a tolerably accurate judgment of its tern-
perature. In this country also, Mr. Kirwan re-
marks, that it generally rains less in March than
in November, in the proportion at a medium of
7 to 12. It generally rains less in April than Oc*
tober, in the proportion of 1 to 2, nearly at a me*
dium. It generally rains less in May than Sep*
tember ; the chances that it does so, are, at least,
4 to 3; bat, when it rains plentifully in May
(as 1.8 inches or more), it generally rains but
little in September ; and when it rains one inch,
or less, in May, it rains plentifully in September*
From a table kept by Dr. Rutty, in Dublin,
tor forty-one years, Mr. Kirwan has endeavour-
ed to calculate the probabilities of particular sea-
sons being followed by others : although his rules
chiefly relate to the climate of Ireland, yet as
there exists but little difference between that
island and Great Britain in the general appear*
ance of the seasons, we shall mention his con-
clusions here,

In forty-one years there were

. Wet springs, 22 dry, and 13 variable \

20 Wet summers, 16 dry, and 5 variable ;

11 Wet autumns, 11 dry, and 19 variable.

^^mm

A season, according to Mr. Kirwan, is account,
ed wet, when it contains two wet months. In
general, the quantity of rain, which falls in dry
seasons, is less than fire inches, in wet seasons
more ; variable seasons are those, in which there
falls between 301bs. and 361bs. a lb. being equal
to '157639 of an inch. •

• The order in which the different seasons fol-
lowed each other was, as in the following table,
" A dry spring has been followed by

a dry summer 11 times

a wet 8

a variable 3

A wet spring has been followed by

a dry summer times

a wet i 5

a variable 1

A variable spring has been followed by

a dry summer 5 times

a wet 7

a yariable 1

A dry summer has been followed by

a dry autumn 5 times

a wet 5

a variable 6

A wet summer has been followed by
a dry autumn 5 times
a wet 3

a variable 12
A variable summer has been followed by
a dry autumn 1
a wet 3

a variable 1

Hence Mr. Kirwan deduced the probability of
the kind of seasons that would succeed others, to
be as follows.

In the beginning of any year, ,

I. The probability of a dry spring is 23-41

of a wet 6*41

of a variable 13-41 •

IL The probability of a dry summer is 16-41

of a wet . 20-41

of a variable 5-41

III. The probability of a dry autumn is 11-41

of a wet ' 11.41

of a variable 19-41

IV* After a dry springy the probability of

a dry summer is 1-22

a wet 8-22

a variable 3-22

V. After a met spring, the probability of

a dry summer it

a wet 5-6

a variable 1*6

VI* After a variable springy the probability of
a dry summer is 5-13

a wet 7-13

a variable 1.13

VII. After a dry summer, the probability of

a dry autumn is 5.16

a wet 5*15

a variable 6*16

VIII. After a wet summer, the probability of

a dry autumn is 5-20

a wet 3-20

a variable 12-20 •

IX. After Si variable summer, the probability of

a dry autumn is 1-5

a wet 3*5

a variable 1.5

But the probability of the autumnal weather will
be attained much more perfectly, by taking in
the consideration of the preceding spring also ;
in order to which Mr. Kirwan observes that

A dry spring and dry summer were followed

by a

dryautumn 3 time*

wet 4

variable 4

A dry spring and a>ef summer were followed by a

dry autumn 2

wet

variable 6

A wet spring and dry summer were followed

by a

dry autumn

wet :

variable

A wet spring and wet summer were followed by a

dry autumn 2

wet 1

variable 1

A wet spring and variable summer were fol-
lowed by a

dry autumn 1

wet *

variable

A dry sprifig and variable summer were follow

ed by a

dry autumn

wet 2

variable * 1
A variable spring and dry summer were fol*

lowed by a

dry autumn 2

wet

f variable 1

A variable spring and dry summer were fol-
lowed by a

dry autumn 2

wet

variable 2

A variable spring and wet summer were fol-
lowed by a

dry autumn 1

wet 1

variable 5

^variable spring and variable summer were

followed by a

dry autumn

wet 1

variable

X. Hence after a dry spring and dry summer,

the probability of a
dry autumn is 3-11

wet 4-11 s

variable '4-11

XL After a dry spring and wet summer the pro-
bability of a
dry autumn is 2*8

wet 0.11

variable 6.8

XII. After a dry spring and variable summer, the

probability of a
dry autumn 0-0

wet 2.3

variable 1*3

XIII. After a wet spring and dry summer, the

probability of a
dry autumn - 0*41 .

wet 0.41 »

variable 0.41

XIV. After a wet spring and wet summer, the

probability of a
dry autumn 2-5

wet 1.5

variable 2-5

XV. After a wet apring [and variable summer^ the

probability of a

dry autumn 1-41

- wet / 0-41

variable 0-41

XVI. After a Variable spring and a dry summer >

the probability of a

dry autumn 2.4

wet 0.41

variable 2-4

XVII. After a variable spring and a wf summer,

the probability of a

dry autumn 1-7

wet 1-7

ramble 5-7

XVIII. After a variable spring and a variable

summer } the probability of a

dry autumn 0-41

wet * 0-41

variable 0-4

• m i US7WP

PART II.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHANGES OF THE
WEATHER, INDICATED BY MEANS OF THE
BAROMETER, AND OTHER PHILOSOPHICAL
INSTRUMENTS.

In the preceding sections, it has been attempt,
ed to comprise the principal indications, afforded
by the natural world, for ascertaining the various
changes of the weather. Now, since every year,
and the different seasons of each year, have a pe-
culiar distinctive character, with regard to heatj
cold, &c. ; and further, since the quality of the
seasons, has a very sensible effect on the produc-
tions of the earth, particularly in the drill and
other systems of husbandry ; — it is evidently of
the greatest advantage to the farmer, to be able
to foresee the nature of the ensuing changes, be-
cause he can thereby suit the culture- of hit
ground, and bis crops, to the weather expected.

the mercury rising and falling. The words de-
serve to be particularly noticed when the tnercu-
ry removes from " changeable" upwards; as
those on the lower part should be adverted to,
when the mercury falls from "changeable" down-
wards. In other cases, they are of no use :
for, as its rising in any part forebodes a tenden-
cy to fair 9 and its falling to foul weather, it
follows that, though it descend in the tube from
tettled to fair 9 it may nevertheless be attended
with a little rain ; and when it rises from the
words " much rain" to " rfliVi," it shews only
an inclination to become fair, though the wet
weather may still continue in a less consider-
able degree than it was when the mercury began
to rise; But if the mercury, after having fallen
to u much rain," should ascend to " change*
abte 9 "< it foretels fair weather, thougn of a
shorter continuance than if the mercury had
risen still higher ; and so, on the contrary, if
the mercury stood at " fair" and descends to
" changeable," it announces foul weather,
though not of so long continuance as if it had
fallen lower.

9. Persons who hare occasion to trarel much,
Sn the winter, and who are doubtful whether it
will rain or not, may easily ascertain this point
by the following observation. — A few hours be-
fore he departs, let the traveller notice the mer-
cury in the upper part of the tube of the barome-
ter : if rain is about to fall, it will be indented or
concave; if otherwise, convex or protuberant.

The following remarks by a late eminent agri-
culturist * may serve more fully to elucidate the
nature and uses of the barometer, to all who are
engaged in agricultural pursuits. When (he ob-
serves) the character of the season is once ascer-
tained, the returns of rain, or fair weather, may
be judged of with some degree of certainty in
some years, but scarcely guessed at in others, by
means of the barometer ; for, in general, we may
expect, that when the mercury rises high, a few
days of fair weather will follow. If the mercury
falls again in two or three days, but soon rises
high, without much rain, we may expect fair wea-
ther for several days ; and in this case, the clear.

• Mr. Mills, in his « Essay on the Weather," p. 74.

est days are after the mercury begins to fall* In
like manner, if the mercury falls very low, with
much rain ; rises soon, but falls again in a day or
two, with rain ; a continuance of bad weather
may be feared. If the second fall does not bring
much rain, but the mercury rises gradually pretty
high, it prognosticates settled good weather of
some continuance. . When a heary rain has fallen
upon the mercury's sinking, and its continuing
steadily low, the weather is sometimes fair, and
promises well ; but no prudent farmer should
trust to such appearances. There is indeed a
caution of this kind which the poorest may profit
by. When the mercury rises high in the baro-
meter, the moisture on the surface of the earth
disappears ; this, eyen though the sky be over-
cast, is a sure sign of fair weather ; but if the
earth continue moist, and water stands in shal-
low places, no trust should be put in the clearest
•ky, for it is in this case deceitful.

Towards the end of March, or more generally
in the beginning of April, the barometer sinks
rery low, with bad weather ; after which, it sel-
dom falls lower than 20 degrees 5 minutes,' till

the latter end of September or October, when
the quicksilver falls again low, with stormy winds,
for then the winter constitution of the air takes
place. From October to April, the great falls
of the barometer are from 29 degrees 5 minuted,
to 28 degrees 5 minutes, and sometimes lower ;
.whereas during the summer constitution of the
air, the quicksilver seldom falls lower than 29
degrees 5 minutes. It therefore follows that a
fall of one' tenth of an inch, during the summer,
is as sure an indication of rain, as a fall of be-
tween two and three tenths is in the winter.

It must, however, be observed, that these
heights of the barometer hold only in places near-
ly on a level with the sea ; for experiments have
taught us, that for every eighty feet of nearly per-
pendicular height that the barometer is placed
above the level of the sea, the quicksilver sinks
one tenth of an inch ; observations alone there-
fore must determine the heights of the quicksil.
Ter, which in each place denote either fair or
foul weather.

Very heavy thunder-storms happen, without
sensibly affecting the barometer; and in this case

.x 2

the storm seldom reaches far. When a thunder,
storm is attended with a fall of the barometer,
its effect is much more extensive. When the
quicksilver falls very low, and the weather con.
tinues mild and the wind moderate, there is at
the same time a violent stofm in some distant
place : this accounts for a* false prognostic, with
which the barometer has often been unjustly
charged. The effects which heat, cold and wind,
severally produce on the glass, independently of
the dry or humid stale of the atmosphere, should
likewise be considered.

From the preceding remarks and facts, it wjll
be obvious to the reflecting reader that a barome-
ter is almost as useful an appendage to the far-
mer as any other implement ; for, as an intelli-
gent writer in the Agricultural Magazine has ob-
served, unless his operations are conducted with
an attentive eye tp the present or probably future
state of the weather, as well as soil, the s produce
of his labours will either fall far short of his expec-
tations, or (which to him is equally fatal) will
suffer from ill-timed, though otherwise commend*
able exertions to house it.

VKGBTABLC BAROMETERS.

The Cerea } or Night Barometer.

The Cerea 19 a native of Jamaicaand Vera Cruz*
It expands an exquisitely beautiful coral flower,
and emits a highly fragrant odour, for a fewhdur*
in the night, and then closes, to open no more
The flower is nearly a foot in diameter ; the inside
of the calyx, of a splendid yellow ; and the nu-
merous petals are of a pure white. It begins to
open about seren or eight o'clock in the evening,
and closes before sun.rise in the morning.

The flower of the Dandelion possesses very
peculiar means of sheltering itself from the heat
of the sun, as it closes entirely whenever the heat
becomes excessive* It has been observed to open,
in summer, at half an hour after five in the morn.,
ing, and to collect its petal* towards the centre
about nine o'clock*

B $

CANINE BAROMETER. •

•

The following anecdote of instinct in a dog
(communicated by a correspondent) is too re-
markable to be omitted : but, while we thus give
it a place in the present work, we do not mean,
to affirm that the canine species may in every in.
' stance be considered as animaL barometers.
' A gentleman, some few^years since, brought a
pointer-dog from South Carolina, who was a
remarkable prognosticator of bad weather.—
',' Whenever I observed him (says his master, >
prick up his ears in a listening posture, scratch-
ing the deck, and rearing himself up, to look over
to the windward, where he would eargerly snuff
up the wind, though it was the finest weather
imaginable, I was sure of a succeeding tempest ;
and this animal was grown so useful to us, that
whenever we perceived the fit upon him, we inu
mediately reefed our sails, and took ia our spare
x canvas, to prepare for the worst.

SECTION II.

OF THE HYGROMETER.

The Hygrometer, is a contrivance, by which
we are enabled to measure the degrees of dryness
or moisture of the atmosphere. This instrument
has long been neglected in meteorological obser-
vations : it is necessary to associate with it the
Thermometer (which is noticed in a future page)
and the Barometer, in order to be enabled to
unravel the complication of different causes
which influence the variations of the atmosphere j
and it is only by a long series of observations,
made-by these various instruments, together with
all the indications deduced from the state. of the
heavens, that we can obtain such data as will en*
able us to prognosticate (with great probability)
the temporary changes, and to arrive at a plau-
sible theory upon this interesting subject.

There are various sorts of hygrometers : for,
whatever body either swells or shrinks by mois-
ture or dryness, mayibe formed into a hygroma*

b*4

ter. Such are most kinds of wood, particularly
white wood, as poplar, birch, deal, &c. And on
this principle it is, that wedges of well dried wood
are employed for cleaving or raising rocks or
stones ; for, in proportion as the moisture of dew,
rain, or water, applied to them, enters into them,
they swell and overcome an inconceivable resist*
ance. Hopes or strings made of hemp, flax, or
any other vegetable substance, become also hy-
grometers. This is well known to sailors, who,
according to the dryness or moisture of the air,
find the shrouds of their vessels slack or tighten,
ed, so as, in the latter case, to be in danger of
breaking*

Stretch a cord or fiddle-string,- fastened at one
end over a pulley, and to the other end -tie a
weight ; this will rise or fall as the air becomes
dry or moist, and consequently be an hygrometer*

Animal substances, as catgut, whalebone, &c.
twisted' and dried, answer the same purposes, as
performers on stringed instruments often find to
their cost, when the too great moisture of the air
breaks their strings. The Dutch toys, known
by the name of weather-houses 9 are very good

hygrometers for common purposes, and art foruu
ed on this principle. The contraction of the
string, by moisture in the atmosphere, forces
the male figure out of the door at the approach of
bad weather ; and, as this gradually become!
dry, the string resumes its natural length, and
forces the female out of door, at the approach of
good weather.

A great misfortune, however, which attends
the use of all these substances is, that by use they
become sensibly less and less accurate, so as at
length not to unJergo any risible alteration from
the different states of the air, in regard to dry*
ness or moisture. On this account a sponge may
be preferred, as being less liable to be so chang.
ed. To prepare the sponge, first wash it in
water, and when dry, wash it again in water
wherein sal ammoniac, or salt of tartar, has
been dissolved ; and let it- dry again. Now, if
the air becomes moist, the sponge will grow hea.
Tier; and if dry, it will become lighter*

Oil of anise«seeds, with proportions of oil of al.
monds or Florence oil, might serve to measure
degrees of heat or cold, and other Appearances of

s 5

r
t

fhe weather. Oil of vitriol is fennel to grow sen*
sibly lighter or heavier in proportion to the lesser
or greater quantity of moisture it imbibes from
the air. The alteration is so great, that it has
been known to change its weight from three
drams to nine. The other acid oils, or, as they
are usually called, spirits, or oil of tartar per de*
liquium, may be substituted for the oil of vitriol*

In order to make an hygrometer with those
bodies which acquired or lose weight in the air,
place such a substance in a scale on the end of a
steel-yard, with a counterpoise which shall keep
it in equilibrio in fair weather ; the other end of
the steel.yard, rising or falling, and pointing to
a graduated ind^, v >i^«hejHhe changes.

If a line be ^^Wgm^elUined whip-
cord, and a j&Sfntaer^te jiffiked to the end of it,
and the whole be- bang* against a wainscot, and
a line bedrawd^imder it, exactly where the

plummet reaches, in very moderate weather it
will be found to rise above such line, and to sink
below it when the weather is likely to become
fair. ' ' oi <
- The awn of barley also famishes a simple but

efficacious hygrometer. It is famished with'
stiff pointy which, like the teeth of a saw, are all
turned towards the point of it ; as this long awn.
lies upon the ground, it extends itself in the moist
air of night, and pushes forward the barley-corn,*
which it adheres to.; in the day it shortens as it
dries ; and as these points prevent it from reced-
ing, it draws up its pointed end ; and thus, creep,
rag like a worm, will travel many feet from the
parent stem. That very ingenious mechanic phi-
losopher, Mr. Edgeworth, once made on this
principle a wooden automaton. Its back consist*
ed of soft fir-wood, about an inch square, and
four feet long, made of pieces cut the cross- way,
in respect to the fibres of the wood, and glued to-
gether : it had two feetbefore, and two behind,
which supported the back horizontally ; but were
placed with their extremities (which were armed
with sharp points of iron) bending backwards;
Hence, in moist weather, the back lengthened,
and the two foremost feet were pushed forwards ;
in dry weather, the hind feet were drawn after,
as the obliquity of the points of the feet prevent,
ed it from receding. And thus, in a month or

ft*

two, it walked across the room which it inhabit*
ed. Might not this machine be applied as an hy.
grometer to some meteorological purpose?

A very simple hygrometer, Mr. Marshall
states, may be formed by means of " a flaxen
line, (large well-manufactured whip-cord) fire
feet long ; and having a graduated Scale fixed to an
index, moving on a fulcrum. The length of the
index, from the fulcrum to the point, should be
ten inches ; that of the lever, from the fulcrum
to the middle of the eye, to which the cord is
fixed, two and a half." lie adds, that " the
principle on which this hygrometer acts is obvi-
ous. The air becoming moist, the cord imbibes
its moisture; the line, in consequence, is short-
ened, and the index rises. On the contrary, the
air becoming dry, the cord discharges its mois- -
ture, — lengthens,— and the index falls. It may
be true, 1 ' he says, " that no two hygrometers
will keep pace with each other sufficiently to sa-
tisfy the curious. He will venture to say, how-
ever, from seven months 1 close attention, that
two hygrometers, on this simple construction,
have coincided sufficiently for the uses of agricuU

tare* It ii true," he adds, " they diminished in
the degree of action ; but as the scale may be
readily diminished in extent, and as a fresh line
may be so cheaply and so readily supplied, this is
not a valid objection." It is remarked, that * ' this
diminution, in the degree of action, depends con.
siderably on the construction ; the propriety, or
rather .delicacy, of which, rests, almost solely, on
this point: the weight of the index should be so
proportioned to the weight of the lever and cord,
that the cord may be kept perfectly straight,
without being too much stretched. He made one
with a long heavy index ; and, in* order to gain a
more extensire scale, with a short lever ; but %
even when it was first put up, it could barely act;
and, in a few weeks, it flagged, and was not able
to raise the index,- though the air was uncommon*
]y moist. He therefore made another, with the
same length, both of index and lever, but with a
lighter index, and a heavier lever, so as to gain
the proportion above.mentioued ; and it has act.
ed exceedingly well." He thinks that no farmer,
" who wishes to profit by the hygrometer, should
have less than two. Three or four would be

more advisable* They would then aswit to cor».
itcting each other ; and, in case of. renewal or
alteration, there would be no danger of losing
the state of the atmosphere ; which, if only one.
is kept, mast necessarily be the case. The prin-
ciple on which this hygrometer is formed, is not,
he says, confined to a stnall cord, and an index of
ten inches long : it may be extended to a rope,
of any length or thickness, and to an index and
scale, of almost any dimensions and extent."
Put one, or more,, on a portable construction,'
might, he thinks, be found useful/ An axe is the
form he has thought of; the edge, graduated,^
vrill constitute the scale; and the handle will re-
ceive the cord : this may be hung up, in the shade, •
exposed to the action of the air ; or, by means of
a spike in the end of the handle, it may be placed
in the open field. By placing it on fallow ground,
it may be actuated by the perspiration of the
earth ; among vegetables, by vegetable perspira-
tion. By the means of one, or, more probably,,
by the means of several placed at varied heights,
the different degrees of moisture at different al-
titudes may be ascertained, &c«. In fact, he con.

aiders the hygrometer, whether it is a prognostic
of the weather or not, as a most valuable oracle to
the farmer*

How valuable an oracle this instrument may
prove, the reader may easily conceive from the
following extract of Mr. Marshall's " Minutes
of Agriculture."

" Yesterday morning, while the hygrometer
stood at two degrees moist, the peas were by no
means fit for carrying; the haulm was green, and
the peas were soft. About ten o'clock, the hy.
grometer fell to one degree dry ; before- one, the
peas were in good order, I went up into the field,*
merely on the word of the hygrometer, and found
them fit to be carried."

- If, however, the observer be desirous of instil
tuting very accurate experiments, it will be ad-
visable to procure the whalebone hygrometer,
originally invented by M. De Luc, which is es-
teemed one of the best now in usei

SECTION III.

THE RAIW-CAUG*.

The Raiw.Gauge (also termed a Pluviome*
ter) is a machine for measuring the quautity of
rain that falls* One of tlie best constructed rain-
gauges consists of a hollow cylinder, having
within it a cork.ball attached to a wooden stem,
which passes through a small opening at the top,
on which is placed a large funnel. When this
instrument is placed in the open air in a free
place, the rain that falls within the circumference
of the funnel will fnn down into the tube and
cause the cork to float: and the quantity of
water in the tube may be seen by the height
to which the stem of the float is raised. The
stem . of the float is so graduated, as to shew
by its divisions the number df perpendicular
inches of water which fell on the surface of the
earth since the last observation. After eirery ob-
servation the cylinder must be emptied.

Another very simple rain.gauge may be form*
ed of a copper funnel, the area of whose opening
is exactly ten square inches. Let this funnel be
fixed in a bottle, and the quantity of rain caught
is ascertained by multiplying the weight in ounces
by .173, which gives the depth in inches and
parts of an inch. In fixing these gauges, care must
be taken, that the rain may have free access to
them ; hence the tops of buildings (according to
Mr. Nicholson*) are usually the best places,
though some conceive that the nearer the' rain*
gauge is placed to the ground, the more rain it
will collect.,

In order to compare the quantities of rain col-
lected in pi urio meters at different places, the in.
ftruments should be fixed at the same heights
above the ground in both places ; because, at
different heights, the quantities are always dif.
ferent, even at the same place.

• " Briuth EocycJopedV article arfa-Cfour*

SECTION IV.

OF THE THERMOMETER.

Besides a barometer for measuring the weight
of the atmosphere, a thermometer is equally ne-
cessary, in order to shew the variations in the tern*
peraiure of the weather : for every change of.
the weather is attended with a change in the tern,
perature of the air, which a thermometer placed,
in the open air will point out, sometimes -before
any alteration is perceived in the barometer*
, The knowledge of the exact degree of cold in
the winter is of cousequence to the farmer : for
it has been observed, that when the frost is so.
' keen that the thermometer sinks fourteen degrees
on Fahrenheit's scale, most succulent vegetables
are thereby destroyed, such as almost all the cab*
bage or kale tribe, turnips} &c. ; for their juices
being then frozen hard, their vessels are thereby
torn asunder or split, so that when the thaw-
comes on, the whole substance, for instance of
turnips and apples, runs into a putrid mass. In

this case the most likely way to prevent their
being lost, is to immerse what is so frozen in
cold water, till the frost is extracted by the
water: the loss is thereby delayed a little, for
what is not used very speedily will soon pu-
trify, notwithstanding this care. The know-
ledge of this consequence of so severe a frost,-
may however suggest to the farmer some method-
of repairing the loss he expects. Time may
point out other useful observations, which may
arise from the knowledge of what may be dis-,
covered from the changes in the thermometer.

The thermometer was invented in the seven-
teenth century ; and from its extensive utility in
the arts, manufactures, and domestic life, the
honour of its invention has been attributed to
various eminent men. Like the barometer, it
has also received various improvements ; but
that chiefly used in this country is Fahrenheit's,
though in France and some parts of the continent
Reaumur's (which is less accurate) is employed.

The scale affixed to Fahrenheit's thermometer
is divided into degrees or equal parts ; its freezing
point is 32 degrees above (or zero, as it is

called by philosophers,) and boiling water 2*2
degre.es. As, however, Reaumur's scale is some,
times (though rarely) used, it may be proper to
add, that its freezing point is 0, and boiling
water at 80 degrees.

From some very accurate tables constructed by
the late Mr. Kirvran, it appears that January is
the coldest month in every latitude • and that July
is the warmest month in all latitudes above 48
degrees : in lower latitudes, August is generally
the warmest. The difference between the hottest
and coldest months increases in proportion to
the distance from the equator. Every habitable
latitude, he further remarks, enjoys a mean
heat of 60 degrees for at least two months;
which heat is necessary for the production of
core. '

But the only method, by which the changes of
(he weather can be traced with precision, hr, to
keep regular registers of the weather, and to
mark erery apperance in the heavens or on th*

earth, which may v tend to point out the apt
proaching seasons. This point cannot be urged
too strongly on the attention of the intelligent
agriculturist: for, as the pursuits of a farmer
necessarily require him to be much in the opea
air, this office would become both regular and
easy to him : and his progress in fixing facts,
and in drawing judicious conclusions from them,
would probably be more speedy and successful
than he might otherwise expect, and would en.
able him, profitably, to regulate the manage,
ment of his crops.

This important object might in all probability
be more effectually obtained, if, together with
the usual registers of the weather, observation*
were made on the winds in many parts of the
earth. For this' purpose the three following
instruments have been suggested : they may be
constructed at no great expence, and thus some
useful information might be acquired.
- 1. To mark the hour when the wind changes
from north-east to south-west, and the con>
trary.— This might be managed by miking a
communication from the vane of a weathercock

SECTION IV.

OP THE THERMOMETER.

Besides a barometer for measuring the weight
of the atmosphere, a thermometer is equally ne-
cessary, in order to shew the variations in the tern*
perature of the weather: for every change of,
the weather is attended with a change in the tern,
perature of the air, which a thermometer placed*
in the open air will point out, sometimes before
any alteration is perceived in the barometer.
. • The knowledge of the exact degree of cold in
the winter is of cousequence to the farmer : for-
it has been observed, that when the frost is so.
' keen that the thermometer sinks fourteen degrees
on Fahrenheit's scale, most succulent vegetables
are thereby destroyed, such as almost all the cab-
bage or kale tribe, turnips} &c. ; for their juices
being then frozen hard, their vessels are thereby
torn asunder or split, so that when the thaw-
comes on, the whole substance, for instance of
turnips and apples, runs into a putrid mass* In

this case the most likely way to prevent their,
being lost, is to immerse what is so frozen in
cold water, till the frost is extracted by the
water : the loss is thereby delayed a little, for
what is not used very speedily will soon ptu
trify, notwithstanding this care. The know-
ledge of this consequence of so severe a frost,-
may however suggest to the farmer some method
of repairing the loss he expects. Time may
point out other useful observations, which may
arise from the knowledge of what may be dis-
covered from the changes in the thermometer.

The scale affixed to Fahrenheit's thermometer
is divided into degrees or equal parts ; its freezing
point is 32 degrees above (or zero, as it is

The shepherd begins with observations arising
form the different appearances of the sun.
These rules may be extended to all .the heavenly
bodies : for, as their rays pass through the atmo-
sphere, the vapours in the air have the same
effect on each. Thus,

The rain-bozo shews us that the rays of light
admit of different degrees of refraction, and
that accprding to those different degrees of re-
fraction, they appear of different colours. A.
clear unclouded sky teaches us, that while the
vapours are equally dispersed in the atmosphere,
the rays reach us without undergoing a change,
or variety of colours. It is known to those con-
versant in experimental philosophy, that this
refraction of the rays of light arises from a
difference in the density of the medium through
which the rays pass. It seems probable, that
while the watery vapour in the air is divided into
its minutest particles, it perhaps only reflects
the rays of light, but does not refract them till
collected into the form of water, as into clouds,
rain, &c. When ,tbe farmer therefore sees the
sun or moon rise or set red and fiery, or sees the

eionds and horizon of that colour, he may expect
wind and rain y owing to the unequal distribution
of the vapours, or to their being already col-
lected into- watery globules by some preceding
cause.

The circle which frequently appears about the
moon, add sometimes about the sun, as also the
moekmsuns and moons, proceeding from the
jreat quantity of watery vapour loading the
lower air, likewise presage rain or windy and
often both.

II. If cloudy, and the clouds soon decrease.— ~
Certain fair weather.

Remarks.

This is in consequence of vapours being more
equally distributed in the atmosphere; which
equal distribution is also promoted by the warmth
of the rising sun. Hence we may account for
an observation adopted into all languages,

llie evening ratf, and the morning grey,, ib a sign of a
fait day.

The rain-bow shews us that the rays of light
admit of different degrees of refraction, and
that accprding to those different degrees of re-
fraction, they appear of different colours. A
clear unclouded sky teaches us, that while the
vapours are equally dispersed in the atmosphere,
the rays reach us without undergoing a change,
or variety of colours. It is known to those con-
versant in experimental philosophy, that this
refraction of the rays of light arises from a
difference in the density of the medium through
which the rays pass. It seems probable, that
while the watery vapour in the air is divided into
its minutest particles, it perhaps only reflects
the rays of light, but does not refract them till
collected into Ihe form of water, as into clouds,
rain, &c. When ( the farmer therefore sees the
sun or moon rise or set red and fiery, or sees the

•loads and horizon of that colour, he may expect
wind and rain, owing to the unequal distribution
of the vapours, or to their being already eoU
looted into- watery globules by some preceding
came.

The circle which frequently appears about the
moon, add sometimes about the sun, as also the
moek.suns and moons, proceeding from the
jreat quantity of watery vapour loading the
lower air, likewise presage rain or windy and
often both.

II. If cloudy, and the clouds soon decrease.— ~
Certain fair weather.

Remarks.

The evening ittf, and the morning grey,, ib a agn of a
fair day.

For if the abundance of vapour denoted by the
red evening sky falls down in dew, or is other-
wise so equally dispersed in the air, that the
morning shall appear grey, we may promise
ourselves a. fair day, from that equal state of the
atmosphere.

If, in the morning, some parts of the sky
appear green between the clouds, while the sky
is blue above, stormy weather is at hand.

SECTION II.

PROGNOSTIC* OF THE WEATHER TAKEN FROM THE

CLOUDS*

III. Clouds small and round, like a dapple*
grey, with a north-wind — Fair weather for
two or three days.

' Jiemurks*

This is differently expressed by other authors.
Thus Lord Bacon observes, that if clouds ap-

pear white, and drive to the north-west, it is a
sign of several days fair weather.

Our old English almanacks have a maxim to
this purpose :

If woolly fleeces spread the heavenly way*
Be sore no rain disturbs the summer day.

And Pliny to the same purpose.

Si sol oriens cingetur orbe, et postea totus de-
flu ierit ae quali ter, serenitatem dabit.

That is,

If the rising sun be encompassed with an iris
or circle of white clouds, and both of them fly
away, this is a sign of fair weather.

There is another English proverb worth re.
membering,

In the decay of the moon

A cloudy morning bodes a fair afternoon.

This rule, however, seems to Contradict an
observation made by Mr. Worlidge, via. that
" In a fair day, if the sky seem to be dappled
with clouds, (which is usually termed a mackarel
sky), it generally predicts rain. 9 * This is con*
firmed by another observer of nature, who has

f 2

-J

100

constantly found, that, in dry weather, so soon
as clouds appear at a great height striped like
the feathers in the breast of a hawk, rain may
be expected in a day or so.

Mr. Worlidge proceeds thus. "In a clear
eTening, certain small black clouds appearing,
are undoubted signs of rain to follow ; or if
black or blue clouds appear near the sun at any
time of the day, or near the moon by night, rain
usually follows.

" If small waterish clouds appear on the tops
of hills, rain follows ; as they observe in Corn,
wall, that

u When Hengston is wrapped with a cloud,
a shower follows soon after.

" The like they observe of Rosemary. topping,
in Yorkshire, and many other places in England.

" If clouds grow or appear suddenly, the air
otherwise free from clouds, it signifies tempests
at hand, especially if they appear to the south or
l*est."

If many clouds, like fleeces of wool, are
scattered from the east, they foretel rain within
ftoee days.

101 f

•

When clouds settle on the tops of mountains,
they indicate hard weather ; and when the tops
of mountains are clear, it is a sign of fair
weather*

IV. If small Clouds increase — Much Rain.

V. If large Clouds decrease — Pair Weather.

VI. In Summer or Harvest, when the Wind
has been South two or three Days, and it
grows very hot, and you see Clouds rise
with great white Tops like Towers, as if
one were upon the Top of another, and

joined together with black on the nether
Side — There will be Thunder and Rain sod.
denly.

VII. If two such Clouds arise, one on either
hand — It is Time to make haste to shelter.

Remarks.

The two last o£ these roles may be illustrated
by the following extract from Boerhaaye's System
of Chemistry.

F 3

102

" If a Urge white, what may be supposed a
frozen cloud, be opposed to the sun, the rays
reflected by the side next the sun must rarefy or
heat the air between it and the sun, while at the
same time, allowing that the cloud is not trans*
parent, the cold will be great in the part turned
from the sun, and the air so much the denser :
whence must arise a violent motion of the cloud,
which will be the more rapid, in proportion as
the sun's heat is the greater on one side, and the
cold is the keener on the other side. If a few
such clouds are so disposed, that their joint
effects meet in one place, which may often be
the case, it is easy to conceive that a very great
heat must suddenly arise in such a place, and the
air be as greatly expanded therein. On a change
of the situation of the clouds, and a consequent
dissipation of the rays of the sun, the heat
ceases, and the cold air, snow, hail, rain, or
other substances near at hand, will rush violently
into the spaces so heated; whence most stu-
pendous and destructive effects may be produced.
Hence it will not be surprising, that a small
cloud appearing in a clear sky,, in a hot climate.

103

still increasing till it reaches the earth, produces*
those direful effects travellers acquaint as they
meet with in certain latitudes: and thus, even
in our northern climate, small wnite clouds ana
sometimes seen at a good height, especially after
a drought or calm, continually increasing, and
as they increase, turning less and less white, till
at length they burst down in heavy showers,
which falling in large drops, shew that they come
from a considerable height, and that they had
probably been hail. As the air admits of greater
rarefaction than water, the watery vapour must
.consequently precipitate out of the heated rare,
lied air. From this cause the inequality of rain
in such showers may proceed."

VIII.' If you see a Cloud rise against the
Witid or side Wind, when that Cloud comes
up to you — The Wind will blow the same
Way that the Cloud came. And the same
Rule holds of a clear Place, when all the
Sky is equally thick y except one Edge.

f 4

104

Remarks.

As wind is nothing more than air in motion,
the effect* of it first discover themselves above,
and actual}/ drive such clouds before them:
this was long ago observed by Pliny. When
clouds, says he, float about in a serene sky,
from whatever quarter they come, you may
expect winds* If they are collected together in
one place, they will be dispersed by the approach
of the sun. If these clouds come from the north*
east, they denote winds; if from the south,
great rains. But let them come from what
quarter they will, if you see them driving thus
about sun-set, they are sure sjgoe of an ap-
proaching tempest*

If the clouds look dusky, or of a tarnish
silver.colour, and move very slowly, it is a sign
of hail* But to speak more plainly, those very
clouds are laden with hail, which, if there be
a mixture of bine in the clouds, will be small,
but if very yellow, large. Small scattering clouds
that fly very high, especially from the south,
west, denote whirlwinds* The shooting of foiling

105

stars through them, is a sign of thunder. We
meet with many observations of this sort in our
old writers on husbandry, and we have abundance
of proverbs relating to this subject which are
worth observing, and the rather, because most
of them are not peculiar to our language only,
but common to us with many. of our neighbours.
Lord Bacon has very judiciously remarked, that
proverbs are the philosophy of the common
people, that is to say, they are trite remarks
founded in truth, and fitted for memory* Some
of them, it must be confessed, seem either false,
or of no great consequence; but it is highly
probable in such cases, that by various accidents
we have lost their true meaning, or else, that in
length of time they have been altered and cor-
rupted, till they hav,e little or no feeaning at alL

F 5

■"^^frjira^^V

106

SECTION III.

PROGNOSTICS OF THE WEATHER TAKEN FROM MUTr

, IX. If Mist 8 rise in low Grounds, and soon,
vanish — Fair Weather.

Remarks.

This is a certain sign, and well expressed ; anfl
rts correctness will be more folly evinced when
the nature of mists is- considered.

Mists are gross vapours, which while they
float ' near the earth are styled mists, but when
they ascend into the air, are called clouds. If,
therefore, rising out of low ground, they are
driven along the plain, and are soon lost to the
sight, it must arise from some of these causes,
viz. That there is sufficient air abroad to divide
and resolve them, or the heat of the sua has been
strong enough to exhale them, that is, to rarefy
them, so as to render them lighter than the air
through which they were to pass. Whichever
way this happens, the maxim ' remains unim-
peached.

*p^

107

X. If Mists rise to the Hill-tops — Rain in

a Day or two*

Remarks.

When mists are very heavy in themselves, and
rise only by the action of that protrusive force,
exerted by the subterranean fire, they can rise
no higher than where the gravitation becomes
superior to that protrusive force, for then they
descend again by their own weight, and this
occasions the appearance mentioned in the obser-
vation of their hanging upon hill.tops, where
they are very soon condensed, and fall down ia
rain.

Formerly there was a very idle and in-ground-
ed distinction between moist and dry exhalations,
whereas, in truth, all exhalations are moist, or
in other words, are watery streams thrown off
by bodies respectively dry ; and the former dis-
tinction was invented only to solve these pheno-
mena of which we have been speaking, that is,
the mist rising and dispersing without rain, and
the mist condensed and resolved into rain.

v 6

108

XI. A general Mitt before the Sun rtsc$, near
the full Moon— Fair Weather.

Remarks.

This 13 a general and a very extensive observtu
tion, which enables us to judge of the weather
for about a fortnight, and there is very great
reason to believe that it will very rarely deceive
us.

Mists are observed to happen when the mer.
cury in a barometer is either yery low or very
tigh^ They happen when it is high after the
region of the air has continued calm a good
while, and in the mean time a great abundance of
vapours and exhalations hare been accumulated,
making the air dark by their quantity, and the
disorderly disposition of their parts* They happen
when, the mercury is low, sometimes because the
rarity of the air renders it unable to sustain
the vapours, which therefore descend mad fall
through it

*.*** ~»

109

XII. If Mitts in the New Moon—Rain Hi

the Old.

Remarks,

When exhalations rise copiously from the
earth into the region of the air, and the air
itself is in a proper disposition, they ascend to
a great height, and continue a long time before
they are condensed ; which accounts rery clearly
and philosophically for the interval of fair
weather between the rising of these mists, and*,
their falling down again in "showers. Their
ascending about sun-rise is a proof that the air is
thin, but at the same time of a force sufficient
to sustain them, since if the mists were not spe-
cifically lighter than the air itself they could not
ascend*

When the moon is at the full, and such ex-
halations rise copiously, the time necessary for
them to float in the atmosphere, before they are
condensed into clouds and rain, generally ex-
tends beyond that moon, and therefore the pre.
tent observation directs, us to expect fair weather*

» *.

110

XIII. If Mists in the 0M— Rain in the New

Moon..

Remarks.

It is an observation, applicable . to every
climate, that great changes of the weather
happen at the changes of the moon. It follows
•that this is the season when the exhalations, that
ascend so copiously at sun* rise, are condensed,
and consequently at this season we must expect
rain. If therefore exhalations rise in the new
moon, it indicates that the air is in a fit disposition
to support them for some time : consequently,
we may expect them to continue floating till the
next regular change of weather, that is, till the
old of the moon, or rather till towards the next
change. The observation, therefore, is very pro*,
perly and cautiously worded,' directing us to
expect rain in the old and in the new, and not
at the old or new; because experience shews
that these changes of the weather happen not
exactly at the change of the moon, but a day or

\ * *

Ill

two before or after. Several instances of this
occur in Capt. Dampier's " History of Winds
and Storms at Sea."

SECTION IV.

PROGNOSTICS OF TftE WBATHER, TAKEN FROM RAIN*

XIV. Sudden Rains never last long: But
when the Air grows thick by Degrees, and
the Sun, Moon and Stars shine dimmer and
dimmer^ then it is like to rain six Hours
usually.

Remarks,

A sudden rarefaction of . the lower air, or
perhaps more frequently a cold cloud descending
from above, or cold wind descending from above
and condensing the invisible vapours so as to
form a cloud, are the most frequent causes of
sadden rain. The rain, therefore, ceases as soon

■0 an equal temperature is restored to the atmo~
sphere : but if the vapours are collected in the
mapner described in the latter part of this rule,
it is no wonder that the rain continues longer.

Mountainous countries, it is observed, hate
most rain, and the reason seems to be the winds
driving the clouds against the rocks and hills,
and thereby compressing them in such a manner,
that they are immediately dissolved, and fall as
it were at once. Thus, in Lancashire there falls
twice as much rain as in Essex, and from the
same cause, probably, in the ocean over.against
the mountainous coast of Guinea, showers some,
times fall, as it were, by pails full.

This observation of our shepherd is very just
and reasonable, and will rarely fail such as ob-
serve it. The dimness of the stars and other
heavenly bodies, is one of the surest signs of
very rainy weather. It is likewise to be observed,
that when the stars look bigger than usual, and
are pale and dull and without rays, this un-
doubtedly indicates thfct the clouds are condensing
into rain, which will very soon fall ; and it has
been obseved, that when the air grows thick by

113

degrees, and the light of the sun lessens no as
not to be discerned at all, and again when the
moon and stars have the same appearances, a
. continued rain for at least six hours is sure to
follow.

In order to hare the most certain information
in such cases, it is best to hare recourse to a va-
riety of signs : for not only do the clonds and
sky, or the sun, moon, and stars, give us previous
notice of rainy weather, but almost every thing
in the creation, and vegetables particularly. For
instance, the pimpernel, which is a very common
flower, shnts itself up extremely close against
rainy weather. In like manner, the trefoil swells
in the stalks against rain, so that it stands np
itry stifl^ but the leaves droop, and hang down.
Even the most solid bodies are affected by this
change of the atmosphere, for stones seem to
sweat, and wood swells, the air driving the moist
particles with which it is filled into the pores of
dry wood especially, make it swell prodigiously ;
and this is the reason why doors and windows *
are hard to shut in rainy weather.

This is so true, that a method has been in-

114

rented of dividing mill-stones bf the mere force
of the air, which is done in the following manner.
They divide a block of this kind of stone as big

*a a large rolling stone, into as many parts as
they design to make mill-stones, and in the
circles . where this block is to be divided, they
pierce several holes, which they fill with aloes-
wood dried in an oven, and expose the stone to
the air in moist weather ; when the wood swells
to such a degree as to split the stone as ef-
fectually, as if it was by iron wedges driven by
sledge hammers.

XV. If it begin to rain from the South, with
a high Wind for two or three Hours, and
the Wind falls, but the Rain continues, it
is like to rain twelve Hours or more, and does
usually rain till a strong North Wind clears
the Air, These long Rains seldom hold above
twelve Hours, or happen above once a Year.

Remarks.

In the state of the air described in this rule,
the mercury in the barometer will always be

115

found low, which indicates that the atmosphere
is light. The rain, therefore, continues to fall,
till a cooler and denser air from ,the north en*
ables the atmosphere to support the vapours.

v fhe duration of rain in an inland countm,
like Oxfordshire (where the shepherd resided)
may not exceed twelve hours : but it is question,
able whether this will hold as a general rule,
either as to its duration or its frequency, in ail
places ; for, near the sea, rains often happen,
and continue for a whole day.

XVI. If it begins to rain an Hour or two
before Sun*risingj it is likely to be fair before
Noon, and to continue so that day ; but if
the Rain begins an Hour or two after Sun-
rising j it is likely to rain all .that Day, ex-
cept the Rain-bow be seen before it rains.

Remarks.

This is a short clear and easy observation,
requiring but few remarks : a few hints, haw-
ever, may not be irrelevant on the formation of
the rain-bow.

116

The rain-bow, then, is a circular image of the
sun, variously coloured, and is thus produced :
The solar rays, entering the drops of falling rain,
are refracted to their further surfaces, and
thence, by one or more reflections, transmitted
& the eye : at their emergence from the drop,
as well as at their entrance, they suffer a re-
fraction, by which the rays are separated, into
their different colours, which consequently are
mbst beautifully exhibited to an eye properly
placed to receive them.

Sometimes (though rarely) two, and -even
three, rain-bows are seen: the colours in the
bow are thus disposed, viz. violet, purple, blue,
green, yellow, orange, red. After a long drought,
the bow is a certain sign of rain ; if after much
wet, fair weather. — If the green be large and
bright, it is a sign of rain, but if the red be the
strongest colour, then it denotes wind and rain
together.— if the bow breaks up all at once,
there will follow serene and settled weather. — If
the bow be seen in 'the morning, small rain
will follow ; if at noon, settled aud heavy rains ;
if at night, fair weather. The appearance

117 /

of two or three rain-bows shews fair weather for
the present, but settled and heavy rains in two
or three days time.

Lunar Rain-bows. — The moon sometimes
exhibits the phenomenon of a rain- bow by the
refraction of her rays in drops of rain in the
night-time. Lunar rain-bows very seldom pre.
sent themselves to our observation; they are
extremely beautiful, though much less than those
that appear in the day-time, and a yellow or
rather a straw-colour chiefly prevails. As they
are of such rare occurrence, they cannot well
be reckoned among the signs of weather ; conw
sequently no probable rales for ascertaining the
weather can be deduced from the appearance of
such rain* bows.

SECTION V.

PROGNOSTICS OF THE WEATHER TAKEN FROM THE

WINDS.

When the atmosphere is of the same weight
and density orer a considerable extent of the
surface of the earth, there a calm will obtain :
but if this equipoise is taken off, a stream of air,
or .wind, is produced, stronger or weaker in
proportion to the alteration made in the state
of the atmosphere* There are direr* causes
which make these alterations in the equipoise of
the atmosphere, such as rarefactions or conden-
sations in one part more than in another ; yapoura
rising from the earth or sea, pressure of the
clouds, &c. It would be foreign from the na.
hire of this work to enier into a disquisition
concerning the causes of the winds in general ;
we shall therefore refer the curious to Lord Bacon,
Mr. Bohun, Dr. Halley, Dr. Franklin, and
others who hare written more fully on this sub.
ject, and confine our attention chiefly to the
winds so far as relates to this island.

119

Three causes may be- assigned for the stated
winds in this island. The first of these stated
winds is the westerly, which so frequently
obtains every where beyond the limits of the
trade- wind, and has been most judiciously ac-
counted for by Dr. Franklin. This general
westerly wind is found to blow mostly from
the north. west in the ocean, and where other
causes do not intervene. Lord Bacon mentions
the other two causes, as having been long ob-
served, viz, that winds blow most frequently
from the sea ; and next, that where there are
high mountain* covered with snow, stated winds
blow from that quarter at the time the snow
dissolves.

Lord Bacon imputes the frequency of the
winds from the sea to the copious ascent of
watery vapour from it; and as signs that such
vapours do ascend from it, . he observes, that
" the sea and lakes sometimes swell very con.
siderably, though no winds are found to blow,
which he remarks is probably occasioned by the
warm vapour rising out of the earth under the
water. At such times a kind of murmuring

* __*^

ISO

noise is heard, the sounding a£ the shore is heard
to a greater distance than usual, and sometimes
a (roth or watery babbles are seen on the sea,
whilst it is flat and calm* Heme miners foretel
storms, by the muddiness of the water, or by the
fumes which rise in mines, before any signs
appear above ground." Mr. Bohun relates,
that " in Cornwall they hare so sure prognos-
tics of storms at sea, from their mines, that the.
fishermen never presume to remain out, when,
the signal is given* by the eruption of certain
meteors, which immediately presage a tempest;
In St. Owen's bay in the isle of Jersey," con*
tinnes he, " the sea ist often strangely disturbed
before the western storms, even when the air is
very calm; and though no wind be stirring,
yet the roaring of the waves may be heard, not
only over the whole isle, but into France about
thirty miles distant, which is the certain prognos*
tie of an ensuing tempest."

This agitation of the sea, and noise of the
water, may be occasioned by a storm in the At*
fantic Ocean, with the wind at west ; for as th*
storm proceeds eastward, the waves raised by it

1*1

will greatly outgo the wind, and thereby reach
the eastern coast some hours before the wind
arrives there. It is probable, that if any storms
arise from vapours ascending thus from the
earth under the sea, they are only such as are
very violent : for that power which the air has of
taking up water, will supply sufficient to occa-
sion the winds so frequent from the sea, and is
perhaps their most general cause.

Wind is air in motion, excited by various
causes. The sun, by concurrent circumstances
in land, water, and vapour, lightens and dis-
perses the air from one place, and at one time,
more than at another. Inflammable exhalations,
and other explosions, shall warm and thin the air
in particular places* A cloud or portion of
vapour full of electrical matter, passing over a
cloud or region of land more destitute of. electri-
cal matter, will shed streams of fire upon the
less electric body, and thereby excite violent
morons, &c. Now, wherever the air is thrown
into a state of rarefaction, there a vacuity is
produced, and the adjacent air flows as water to
the breach of a dam, and the flood is either violent

or not, as the space through wjiich it passes is
shaped ; lasting as the quantity of fluid set in
motion, and as the extent of the vacuity is to be
replenished. If the vacuity be spacious, the
flow will be plentiful (obstructions in the way
being allowed for) ; if the channel through which
the influx runs be long, narrow, and funnel-like,
the velocity will be great, and - vice versa ; but
if a large quantity of condensed air shouk} at
this time press forward to ward 3, this large vacuity,
the motion of the air will be impetuous, or what
we call a storth. If, on the other hand, the
rarefactions in particular districts be gentle,
and there is room for denser air to succeed with,
out violence, the motion also is gentle; and
where no extraordinary rarefactions are produc-
ed, and the vapours are equally dispersed, a
calm ensues*

If. rarefying vapours assume the shape of an
oblate disc, over-spreading as a canopy a wide
extent, the weight and continuity of the incum-
bent air is in this district, for a time, and to a
certain degree, suspended; the mercury sinks
in the barometer, and at the same time the cur-

1*3

rent of the air above this disc shall go one way*
towards any vacuity, which shall create a fresh
tendency, and the under-current of air, influenc*
ed by another rarefaction, shall go in a different,
perhaps opposite direction ; there being no com.
munication between the currents above and
below the disc of vapours, sufficient to determine
them to one point. Thus again, by the fall or
even recess of a great body of vapours in one
place out of our sight, the air over our headi
being; condensed, and keeping the mercury high,
extends itself into the vacuity, the wind blows,
and the mercury falls in a serene sky, to our sur-
prise. By the rising of a like body of vapours*
and accumulating the air of .our horizon, the
mercury rises in a cloudy and even rainy sky>
When the wind is violent, the perpendicular
pressure of the air is much lessened by the
velocity of the horizontal motion, and the mer-
cury falls* When the air is fullest of vapours,
the mercury falls; the pressure of the atmo*
sphere depending not only on the weight of the
fluid, but also on the agility and elasticity of the
column of air which is broken and interrupted

s 2

124

by such a quantity of moisture floating between,
condensing, and ready to fall. These, and many
other variations which might be mentioned, are
the necessary results of meteors, vapours, and.
air intermixed in separate portions, and acting
with reciprocal, but generally very different
powers.

. It has frequently been remarked, that the
winds in the upper region of the air, as may be
4een by the motion of the clouds, are very dif-
ferent from those near the surface of the earth,*

'A sign of a change of weather which seemed
new and singular to Mr. Borlace,+ was thus.
August 15, 1752, the wind being at west-north-
west, the sky cloudy, the mercury moving up-
ward in the barometer, at about six in the even-
ing, there appeared in the north-east the frus*
trum of a rain-bow. All the colours were
lively and distinct. They call it in Cornwall a
weather-dog, of weather's-eye, and pronounce
it a certain sign of hard rain. The mercury fell

* Memoires de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, pour
l'an 1717.

t Natural History of Cornwall, p. 17. "

, »

125

y %, and that without rain. Next morning was
dry, but not clear : about eleven it began to
rain gently, and at one a flood of rain came on,
which continued all night and till the next
morning.

Oar northerly winds in the beginning of the
winter may arise from the weight of the cold
northern air overcoming the warmer southern
air, which, as the heat lessens, is less loaded
with vapours, and therefore more easily gives
way to the cold northern and denser air* Hence
the frequency of north-west winds at that season*

The most general cause of the easterly winds
in the spring and beginning of summer, arises
from the melting of the snow on the continent,
as observed by Lord Bacou. The warmth which
constantly obtains in a thaw, raises not only
much of the melting snow into the air, but the
exhalations which had been so long confined by
the frost, rise copiously into the air, and become
the cause of our easterly winds, which are ob-
served to blow more or less, in proportion to the
duration and severity of the winter on the con*
tinent.

o 3

120

Without entering, however, iota the cause*
of the frequent changes of our winds, concern-
ing which philosophers are by no means agreed*
we shall now proceed to the shepherd's rales
relating to the winds.

XVII. Observe that in eight Years Time
there is as much South- West Wind y as
North-East, and consequently as many wet
Years as dry.

4 Remarks.
This is, confessedly, a very extraordinary
aphorism from % country shepherd, but at the
same, time it perfectly corresponds with the
observations of Dr. Hooke, Dr. Derham, Dr.
Grew, and other able naturalists, who with un-
wearied pains and diligence have calculated the
quantity of rain falling in one year, and compar-
ed it with that which fell in another. The in-
genious observations and calculations of Mr.
Kirwan, already noticed,* certainly afford abun-
dant ground to conclude that there is a kind of

* See pages 61 — 68.

127

natural balance established, of wet and dry
weather, as well as of light and darkness, heat
and cold, and similar variations.

It may not be amiss, however, to caution the
reader against a mistake into which the manner
of this rule being stated may easily lead him :
viz. that south-west winds cause rain, and north-
east winds fair weather, which is by no means
clear or- certain. Generally speaking, it is in-
deed true, that south-west winds and rain, north,
east winds and fair weather, come together ; but
the question is, which causes the other ? — and a
more difficult question cannot easily be stated,
because there seems to be facts on both sides.
South-west winds seldom continue long without
rain ; this seems to prove the affirmative : but on

the other hand, when in hard weather rain begins
to fall, the wind commonly veers to the south-
west ; this looks as if the rain caused the" wind.
Bat there. is one thing which seems strongly
to confirm the shepherd's observation, viz. that
in any given place the quantity of rain one year
with another is fouud to. be the same by expe-
rience ; according to which, the following table

g 4

128

has been calculated, for the mean quantity of
rain falling one year with another in those place*
which are mentioned, and on this proportion the
other seems to be founded.

At Harlem

24 Inches

Delf

27 ,

Dort

Middlebnrg

Paris

Lyons

Rome

Padua

37|

Pisa

34^

'Ulm

Berlin

1°*

In Lancashire

Essex

XVIII. When the Wind turns to North.
JSast, and it continues two Days without
Rain, and does not turn South the third
Day, nor Rain the third Day 9 it is likely
to continue North.East for eight or nine
Days, all fair; and then to come to the
South again.

^p I * i^. j t 'l'J*"*

139

Remarks.

These rules of our shepherd are. among the
most valuable of the whole collection ; his ob-
servation of the manner, which the winds settle
in the east or south-west, is particularly worthy
the farmer's attention, because it will lead him to
most useful fore-knowledge. It is however
proper to observe, that as great part of England
is a champaign country, at least free from high
hills, the winds and weather are more regular
there than in mountainous countries, or where
the coast is intersected by arms of the sea. The
shepherd's remarks, made in the middle of that
delightful plain which constitutes the greatest
part of England, will therefore not hold so true
in other places differently situated.

When he tells us, that in eight years- we have
as many wet as dry, he does not ascertain what
winds bring rjun or fair weather; and, as Mr.
Worlidge observes, that wind which brings rain
to one part of the island r may not to another :
for on which coast the sea is nearest, the wind
more frequently brings rain to that place, than

o 5

130

to another, where the sea is more remote. There-
fore it is necessary, that all such as expect anjf
success to their observations, should adjust the
rules to the place where they live, and not trust
to the observations of other places.

XIX. After a Northerly Wind for the most
part of two Months or more, and then
coming South, theve are usually three or four
feir Days at first, and then on the fourth or
fifth \Day comes Rain, or else the Wind
turns North again, and continues dry*

XX. If it turn again out of the South to
the North-East with Rain , and continues in
the North-East two Days without Rain, and
neither turns South nor rains the third
Day, it is likely to continue North. East two
or three Months,

The wind will finish these turns in three
weeks.

XXI. If it returnr to the South within a
Day or two without Rain, and turns Norths
ward with Rain, and returns to the South 4m

- ._- i *il»ll

151

one or two Days as before, two or three

times together after this sort, then it is like

to be in the South or South-West two or three*

Months together, as it was in the North

before.

The winds will finish these turns in a fortnight.

XXII. .Fair Weather for a Week with a South*
em Wind, is like to produce a great Drought,
if there has been much Rain out of the South
before. The Wind usually turns from the
North to South with a quiet Wind without
Rain; but returns to the North with a strong
Wind and Rain. The strongest Winds are
when it turns from South to North by West.

When the North Wind first clears the air,
which is usually once a Week, be sure of a fair
Day or two.

XXIII. If you see a Cloud rise against the
Windy or Sidewind, when that Cloud comes
up to you, the Ylivk& will blow the same way the
Cloud came. The same rule holds of a
clear place, when all the Sky is equally
thick, except one clear Edge.

a 6

132

Southerly and westerly winds generally prove
rainy- in this island, there being so great an ex.
tent of sea to the south-west: yet places far dis-
tant from that sea, or which are screened from it
by high mountains, have fair weather ; as is' the
case on the north-east coast of Scotland, where
the vapours are intercepted by the Grampian
hills. The easterly winds, coming to the south
part of the island over a narrow tract of sea, are
generally fair, except in. winter, when they bring
en the dark,, heavy sky. They are extremely
sharp and cold in the winter, coming from a
frozen continent; but if inclined to the south,
are hot and dry in the summer, as coming from
the continent then heated by the sun. The
easterly winds crossing a much wider sea in their
passage to Scotland, prove generally rainy all
along the east of that country ; but fair on the
west. We may easily conceive that the air, in
crossing the German ocean, may take up water
enough to cause this rain by its faculty of at-
tracting water, before mentioned*

A wind blowing from the sea is observed to be
always moist; cold in summer, and warm in

13*

winter, unless the sea be frozen up: (t. e. the
temperature of wind blowing over water is more
equal k than that of wind blowing over land:)
and winds blowing from large continents are dry,
warm in summer, and cold ia winter. If the
frpst is so great as to freeze the vapour as it
rises from the sea, it must feel extremely sharp
and cold to our bodies ; though by the thermo-
meter the cold may be the same as in lofty situa-
tions, to which such .heavy vapours seldom
ascend in winter*

Lord Bacon observes, that " when the wind
changes comformable to the motion of the sun,
that is from east to south, from south to west,
&c. it seldom goes back ; or if it does, it is only
for a short time : but if it moves in a contrary
direction, viz. from east to north, from north to
west, it generallyr eturns to the former point, at
least before it has gone quite through the circle*
When winds continue to vary for a few hours,
as if it were to try in what point they should
settle, and afterwards begin to blow constant,
they continue for many days. If the south wind
begins to blow for two or three days, the north

134

wind will blow suddenly after it : but if the
north wind blows for the same number of days,
the south will not rise till after the east has
blown a while. Whatever wind begins to blow
in the morning, usually continues longer than
that which rises in the evening." •

Mr. Worlidge observes, that " if the wind
be east or north-east in the fore, part of the
summer, the weather is likely to continue dry ?
and if westward towards the end of the summer,
then will it also continue dry. If in great rains
the winds rise or fall, it signifies that the rain -
will forthwith cease. If the colours of the rain,
bow tend more to red than any other colours-
wind follows;' if green or blue predominate,.
then rain."

SECTION VI.

PROGNOSTICS OF THE WEATHER, TAffElf FROM THE

SEASONS.

XXIII. Spring and Summer. If. the fast
eighteen Days of February and ten Day $

135

of March be for the most part rainy y then
the Spring and Summer Quarters are like
to be so too : and I never knew a great
Drought but it entered in that Sesaon.

Remarks:

Observation will easily discover whether this
rule be well or ill founded, that is to say, whe-
ther our shepherd's observation will serve for
other places or not, and where it will serve and
where not. It is bat highly probable, that the
weather in one season of the year determines the
weather in another : for instance, if there be a
rainy winter, then the autumn will be dry ; if a
dry spring then a rainy winter. Our forefathers

had abundance of odd sayings upon this subject,
and some proverbs for every month in the year,
many of which seem to have but indifferent foun.
dations. There can however be no harm in ob-
serving them, in order to discover whether these
traditional remarks are well or ill founded.

JanWer freeze the pot by the fire.

If the grass grow in Janiver,

It grows the worse fort all the year.

The Welchmau had rather see his dam on the bier

«3»sa

» ~-^» i- i

135

Than to see a lair Febrneer.

March wind and May sun

Make clothes white and maids dan.

When April blows his horn,

If s good both for hay and corn.

An April flood

Carries away the frog and her brood.

A cold May and a windy

Makes a full barn and a Andy.

A May flood never did good.

A swarm of bees in May

Is worth a load of hay.

But a swarm in July

Is not worth a fly, &c.

XXIV. Winter. If the latter End of October
and Beginning of November be for the most
part warm and rainy y then January and
February are like to be frosty and cola\
except after a very dry Summer.

XXV. If October and November be Snow and
Frost j January and February 'are likely to be
open and mild*

' Remarks.
The reason of this observation, supposing it to
be true, is to be sought in that balance of the Wca-

137

ther which Providence has established. There
is not only a time to sow, and a time to reap, but
there is a time also for dry and a time for wet
Weather ; and if these do not happen at proper
seasons, they will certainly happen at others: for
not only has the wisdom of philosophers dis-
covered, but their experiments and observations
have demonstrated, that there is a certain rule or
proportion observed between wet weather and
dry in every country, so that it is nearly the
same in every annual revolution ; neither is it
wet and dry weather only, but hot and cold, open
and frost, that are thus regulated. Hence we
see, that when the Scripture represents to us
God's settling things by weight and measure, it
speaks not only elegantly, but exactly : for we
are not to understand,by Providence, any extraor-
dinary or supernatural interposition of almighty
power, but the constant and Settled order esta-
blished by the will of that Almighty Being, whic^
order we ordinarily call Nature.

The following rules, laid down by Lord Bacon,
will conclude our remarks on the shepherd's
prognostications of the changes of the weather
from the seasons. '

13*

If the wainscot or walls that used to sweat be
drier than usual, in the beginning of winter, at
the eves of houses drop more slowly, than ordi-
nary, it portends a hard and frosty winter t for
it shews an inclination In the air to dry weather,,
which, in winter, is always joined with frost.

Generally, a moist and cool summer portends
a hard winter*

A hot and dry summer and autumn, especially
if the heat and drought extend far into Septem-
ber, portend an open beginning of winter, and
cold to succeed towards the latter part of the win*
ter, and beginning of spring.

A warm and open winter portends a hot Und
dry summer f for the yapours disperse into the
winter showers ; whereas cold and frost keep
them in, and convey them to the late spring and
following summer*

Birds that change countries at certain seasons,
if they come early, shew the temper of the wea-
ther, according to the country whence they came ;
as, in the winter, woodwcocks, field-fares, snipes,
&c. if they come early, shew a cold winter ; and
the cuckoos, if they come early, show a hot sum*
mer to follow.

130

A serene autumn denotes a windy winter ; a
windy winter, a rainy spring ; a rainy spring, a
serene summer ; a serene summer, a windy au-
tumn ; so that the air, on a balance, is seldom
debtor to itself ; nor do the seasons succeed each
other in the same tenor for two years together*

In addition to these rules, Mr. Worlidge re*
marks, that ■ ,

If at the beginning of the winter the south wind
blow, and then the north, it will probably be a
cold winter; bat if the north wind first blow, and
then the south, it will be a warm and mild winter*

If the oak bear much mast, it prognosticates a
long and hard winter. The same has been observed
of hips and haws. If broom be full of flowers,
it usually signifieth plenty.

Mark well the flowering almonds in the wood ;
If od'roos blooms the bearing branches load,
The glebe will answer to the sylvan reign,
Great heats will follow, and large crops of grain.
Bat if a wood of leaves o'ershade the tree,
Such and so barren will the harvest be.
Id vain the hind shall vex the threshing floor.
For empty chaff and straw will be thy store.

Virgil.

140

This observation, says Mr. Worlidge, hath
proved for the most part true for several years
110 w past ; as in 1673 and 1674 there were but
few nuts, and cold and wet harvests ; in 1675 and
1676, were plenty of nuts, and heavy and dry-
harvests; but more especially in 1676 was a
great shew of nuts, and a very hot and dry har-
vest succeeded.

APPENDIX.

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS,

NOT REFERIBLE TO ANT OF THE PRECEDING PARTS

OR SECTIONS.

I. Observations on the Winds.

In the former part of this work, we have stat-
ed the various states of weather indicated by the
blowing of particular winds ; in addition to those
remarks, we annex the following particulars,
which will be found not devoid of interest to the
attentive observer of nature.

Wind, it may be observed, is a sensible agita-
tion of the atmosphere, caused by a quantity of
air blowing from one place to another. As not
only navigation depends in a great degree upon

the direction and force of the winds, but also the

14*

temperature of climates and the healthiness of
the atmosphere are materially influenced by them,
the following facts, drawn from attentive observa*
tion, are submitted to the reader's attention.

1. Sea. and Land Breezes.

Sea-breezes commonly rise in the morning
about nine o'clock. They first approach the
shore gently, as if they were afraid to come near
it. The breeze comes in a fine, small, black curl
upon the water, whereas all the sea between it
and the shore (not jet reached by it) is as smooth
and even as glass in comparison. In half an
hour's time- after it has reached the shore, it fans
pretty briskly, and increases gradually till twelve
o'clock ; then it is commonly the strongest, and
lasts so till two or three, a very brisk gale.-*
After three, it begins to die away again, and gra-
dually withdraws its force till all is spent ; and
about five o'clock it is lulled asleep, and comes
no more till next morning.

143

As the sea-breezes blow in the day, and rest
in the night; so, on the contrary, the land-
breezes blow in the nighty and rest in the day,
alternately succeeding. each other: they spring
up between six and twelve at night, and last till
six, eight, or ten in the morning.

2. The Trade-Wind*.

The trade-winds denote certain regular winds
at sea, blowing either . constantly the same way,
or alternately this way and that : they are thus
designated from their use in navigation and in-the
Indian trade.

The constant trade. winds do not usually blow
near the shore, but only on the ocean, at least 30
or 40 leagues off at sea, clear from any land, es-
jpecially on the west coast, or side of any conti-
nent : for, on the east side, the easterly wind be-
ing the true trade- wind, blows almost home to
the shore, so near as to receive a check from the
land-wind.

144

And not only the general trade- winds, but also
the constant coasting trade-winds, are in like
manner affected by the lands, as is proved on the
coast of Angola and Peru. , But it must be re*
marked, that the trade-winds which blow on any
coast, except the north coast of Africa, whether
they are constant and blow all the year, or whe-
ther they are shifting winds, do never blow right
in on the shore, nor right along shore, but go
slanting^ making an acute angle of about 22 de-
grees. Therefore, as the land tends more east or
west, from north or south on the coast ; so the
winds do alter accordingly.

3. Direction of the Winds.

From an averagejof ten years of the register kept
by the order of the Royal Society, it appears,
that at London the winds blow in the follow-
ing order : N

145

Winds.

. Days.

South-west

- 112

North-east

North-west '

West

South-east .

Cast . - - .

2(5

South

North

It appears from the same register, that the
south-west wind blows at an average more fre.
quently than any other wind during every month
of the year, and that it blows longest in July and
August; that the north-east blows most con-
stantly during January, March, April, May, and
June, and most seldom during February, July,
September, and December ; and that the north*
west wind blows oftener from November to
March, and more seldom during September and
October, than any other months. The south,
west winds are also most frequent at Bristol, and
next to them are the north-east.*

Phihinph. TVoiif. of the Royal Society, toI. lvi. p. 685.

148

In Ireland the south-west and west are the
grand trade. winds, blowing most in summer, au-
tumn, and winter, and least in spring* The
north-east blows most in spring, and nearly don*
ble to what it does in autumn and winter. The
south-west and north-west are nearly equal, and
are most frequent after the south-west and west.*

The direction in which the wind blows may
be ascertained by observing certain flowers, some
kinds of which are adapted both to the winds and
to rain. Of this description are the flowers of
yeas, which are furnished with small boats to cover
and shelter the stamina, and the embryos of
their fruits. Further, they have large pavilions,
and rest on tails bent, and elastic like a nerve;
so that when the wind blows over a field of peas,
all the flowers may be seen to turn their, backs to
the wind, like so many weather-cocks.

Dr. Rutty's History of the Weather in Dublin, &e.

147

II. Observations on Lightning.

Lightning strikes the highest and most pointed
objects in its course, in preference to others, as
hills, trees, spires, masts of ships, &c* So, all
pointed conductors receive and throw off the
electric fluid more readily than such as are ter-
minated by flat surfaces. Lightning is observed
to take and follow the readiest and best con-
ductor.

With regard to places of safety in times of

thunder and lightning, Dr. Franklin's advice is,

to sit in the middle of a room, provided it be not
under a metal lustre suspended by a chain, sitting
on one chair, and laying the feet on another. It
is still better, he says, to bring two or three mat-
tresses, or beds, into the middle of the room, and
folding them double, to place the chairs upon
then) ; for, as they are not so good conductors as
the walls, the lightning will not be so likely to
pass through them. But the safest place of all
is in a hammock hung by silken cords, at an equal
distance from all the sides of the room. Dr.

M %

148

Priestley obserres that the place of most perfect
safety must be the cellar, and especially the mid-
dle of it ; for when a person is lower than the
surface of the earth, the lightning must strike it
before it can possibly reach him* In the fields,
the place of safety is within a few yards of a tree,
but not quite near it

III, Water-spouts.

A water-spout is an extraordinary meteor,
most frequently observed at sea. It commonly
begins by a cloud which appears very small, and
which sailors term the squall ; this in a little time
augments into an enormous cloud of a cylindri-
cal form, or that of a reversed cone, and produ-
ces a noise somewhat like ail agitated sea, some-
times accompanied with thunder and lightning,
and also pouring down large quantities of hail or
rain, sufficient to inundate large vessels, to over-

149

whelm trees and houses, and every thing which
opposes its violent impetuosity.*

Water.spouts are more frequent at sea than by
land : and so convinced are mariners of their
dangerous consequences, that when they perceivo
their approach, they frequently endeavour to
dissipate them by firing a cannon, before they
approach too near the ship. Water.spouts have
also been known to have committed great devas.
tations by land ; although where there is no water
near, they generally assume the form of a whirl*
wind.

Various extraordinary effects have been re-
corded, as being produced by water- spouts, the
descriptions of which most probably have been
much exaggerated. One at Topsham, in Devon*
shire, is said to have cut down an apple tree,
several inches in diameter : another, it is said,
seemed to be produced by a concourse of winds,
turning like a screw, the clouds dropping down
into it; it threw down trees and branches, with
a gyratory or circular "motion.

* Gregory's Economy of Nature, vol 1. p. 8TQ.

a 3

150

IV. Nautical Observations may be made from

Aquatic Plants,

The seeds of aquatic plants have forms no
less adapted than those of their leaves, to the
places where they are destined to grow; they
are all constructed in a manner most proper for
sailing. Some of them are fashioned like shells ;
others like boats, rafts, and skiffs, as welt as
single and double canoes, similar to those of the
South Seas. By an attentive study of this part
alone of natural history, a great number of very
curious discoveries might be made respecting the
art <Ff crossing currents of every sort. A very
ingenious writer concludes this observation by
the following remark. " I am persuaded that
the first men, who were much better Observers
than we are, took their different methods of
travelling by water from those models of nature,
of which, with all our pretensions to discovery,
we are but feeble imitators."

The aquatic or maritime pine has its kernels
inclosed in a kind of small bony shoes, notched
•n the lower side, and covered on the upper

151

with apiece resembling a ship's hatch. The wal-
nut, which delights so much in the banks of
rivers, has its fruit contained in two small boats,
fitted to each other. The hazel, which becomes
so bushy on the brink of millets, and the olive,
which loves ' the sea-shore to such a degree that
it degenerates in proportion as it is removed from
it, bear their seed inclosed in a species of small
casks, capable of enduring the longest voyages.
The* red berry of the yew, whose favourite resi-
dence is the cold and humid mountains, near
the margin of lakes, is hollowed out into a little
bell. This berry, on dropping from the tree, is
at first carried down by its fall to the bottom of
the water ; but it instantly returns to the surface
by means of a hole, which nature has contrived
in the form of a navel, above the seed. In this
aperture is lodged a bubble of air, which brings
it back to the surface of the water, by a me-
chanism more ingenious than that of the diving
bell, as the vacuum of the latter is undermost,
and that in the berry of the yew uppermost*

15*

V. Miscellaneous Observations on Plants,

In the former part of this work, notice has
been taken of the indications of weather afforded
by the vegetable creation: beside affording
these prognostics, many plants also fold them-
selves up at particular hours, and wtyh such
regularity, as to have acquired particular
names from this property. The following are
among the more remarkable plants of this des-
cription.

1. TnE Goat's Beard, or Tragopogon of
Linnaeus : the flowers of this plant open in the
morning at the approach of the sun, and (with*
out regard to the state of the weather) regularly
shut about noon. Hence it is generally known
in the country by the name of John.go-to.bedm
aUnoon.

2. The Princesses 9 Leaf, or Four o'Clock
Flower, in the Malay Islands, is an elegant
shrub so called by the natives, because their
ladies are fond of the grateful odour of its white
leaves. It takes its generic name from its quality
of opening its flowers at four in the evening, and

153

not closing them, in the morning till the same hour
returns, when they again expand in the evening
at the same hour.

Many people transplant them from the woods
into their gardens, and use them as a dial or
clock, especially in cloudy weather.

3, The Evening Primrose.— This flower is
well known from its remarkable properties of
regularly shutting with a loud popping noise,
about sun-set in the evening, and opening at sun.
rise in the morning, A curious observer may
receive pleasure by no tiring how regularly,
after six o'clock, these flowers will report the
approach of night.

4. The Parkinsonia or Tamarind Tree,
the Lapsana or Nipple-wort, Nymphasa or
Water Lilt, Calendula or Marigold, JEschy*
nomene or Bastard Sensitive Plant, and
several others of he Diadelphia class, in serene
weather expand their leaves in the day-time, and
contract them during the night. According to
some botanists, the Tamarind-tree enfolds with-
in its leaves ;the flowers or fruit, every night, in
order to guard them from cold or rain.

154

5. The flower of the Garden Lettuce, which
is in a vertical* plane, opens at seven o'clock,
and shuts at ten.

0. A species of serpentine Aloes, without
prickles, whose large and beautiful flower exhales
a strong odour of the vanilla, during the time
of its expansion, which is very short, is cultivated
in the imperial garden at Paris. It does not blow
till towards the month of July, and about five
o'clock in the evening ; at which time it gradually
opens its petals, expands them, droops, and dies.
By ten o'clock the same night, it is totally
withered), to the great astonishment of the spec*
tators, who flock in crowds to see it.

In like manner, the attentive observer of
nature may notice, how almost every species of
flowers are expanded or opened by the genial
rays of the sun; but in the evening and tyring
a moist state of the air the flowers close, or con*
tract, lest the moisture (penetrating the dust of
the anthers) should coagulate the same, and
prevent it from being blown on the stigmata or
summits. A very remarkable circumstance,
attending plants of this class is, that when the

155

fecundation is completed, the flowers do not
contract either in the day, or in the evening,
nor at the approach of rain*

In addition to the flowers of plants above men*
tioned, as closing and opening their petals at cer-
tain hoars of the day, many others might be speci-
fied. The illustrious Linnaeus has enumerated
forty.six*flowers, which possess this kind of
sensibility: he divides them into three classes.

1. Meteoric Flowers , which less accurately
observe the hour of folding, but are expanded
sooner or later according to the cloudiness, mois.
tare or pressure of the atmosphere.

2. Tropical Flowers, that open in the morn-
ing and close before evening every day ; but the
hour of their expanding becomes earlier or later
as the length of the day increases or decreases*

3. Equinoctial Flowers, which open at a
certain and exact hour of the day, and for the
most part close at another determinate hour. *

Hence the Horologe, or Botanical Watch,
is formed from numerous plants, which are of
frequent occurrence in this country. (See the
Frontispiece.)

• Dr. Darwin's " Poetical Works/' vol. II. p. 90, note.

160

In the engraving just referred to, the letters
M.N. E. and A. in the third and sixth circa,
lar spaces of the Dial, signify Morning, Night,
Evening, and Afternoon ;, and the figures on the
fourth and seventh spaces refer to the hour of the
day or night, &c. the flowers open or shut at.
For example, let the reader look for Papaver ntu
dicaufey or naked poppy, and he will find in the
corresponding spaces, that it opens in the morn*
ing at five o'clock, and closes in the evening at
seven. The other letters and figures will corres.
pond in a similar manner with the flowers men.
tioned in the first or large space of the dial. These
observations, however, can only be made during
the snmmer months, but they will afford ample
and rational amusement to those who are partial
to botanical experiments.

Three of the Cardinal Points of the Compass y
shown by the Sun-flower.

The common art nual sun -flower has the remark,
able property of following the course of the sun

157

daring the day ; and in the night (the stalks un-
twisting) returns to the east, to face the sun next
morning* In July, the top of the sun-flower being
tender, and the flower near beginning to blow—
if the sun rise clear, the flower fates towards
the east, and the sun continuing to shine, at noon
it faces to the south, and at six in the evening to
the west* This is not by turning round with the
sun, but by nutation ; the cause of which is,
that the side of the stem next the sun perspiring
most, it shrinks, and this plant perspires much*

VI. Important Remark on the Benefit o/EaiU
ly Rising, by the late Rev. Dr. Doddridge.

" The difference between rising at five, and
at seven o'clock in the morning, for the space of
forty years, supposing a man to go to bed at the
same hour at night, is nearly equivalent to the
addition of TEN YEARS to a manU life."*

• Family Expositor, on Rom. xiii. IS, note k*

THK EtfD.

INDEX.

Animals, changes of weather indicated by, 22, <5cc.— Re-
marks on the organization of animals, 18 — 21.

Aquatic Plants, nautical observations from, 150.

Atmosphere, the moon's in6uence on, considered, 47—55,
58, 59.

Aurora Borealis, signs of weather from, 35.

Auster, or South Wind, nature and effects of, 56.

Bacon, (Lord) rules for prognosticating the weather front
the moon, 56. — Remarks on winds, 119.

Barometer, rules for ascertaining the changes of weather
by, 70, &c— Remarks on its nature and uses, 73 — 76.
Vegetable barometers, 77. Canine barometer, 78.

Birds, signs of weather from, 22, 23—25.

Bohun, (Mr.) remarks on winds in Cornwall, 120.

Botanical Watch, description of, 156.

Canine Barometer, 78.

Cerea, or Night Barometer, 77.

Clouds, sign of weather from, 30, &c. 98—105.

Compas*,cardinal points of,indicated by the sun-flower,l57»

Cotte, CM.) on lunar iufluence on the weather, 47. *

Doddridge, (Dr.) important remark of, on early rising, 158.

Dog:, curious anecdote of one, 78.

Dolphins, signs of weather from, 25.

Early Rising, remarks on, 158.

Earth, signs of weather from, 39, 40.

East-Wind, nature and effects of, 35.

Electricity, (auimal) observations on, 20, 21.

Evaporatton, nature of, 28. — Spontaneous evaporation, 29*

Flowers, meteoric, what, 155. — Tropical, ibid. — Equinoc-
tial, ibid. N

Herschel, (Dr.) table of, for predicting the weather from
the sun and moon, 58.

Horologe, or Botanical Watch, 156.

Hygrometer, nature and uses of, 79. — Account of different
hygrometers, 79—87.

Insects, signs of weather from, 24, 25.

Kirwan, (Mr.) rules for prognosticating the seasons, 60.
On the probabilities of particular seasons being follow-
ed by others, 61 — 68.

INDEX. 159

Lambert, (M.)on the moon's influence on the weather, 47.

Leech, sign of weather from, 27.

Lightning, observations on, 147.

LMmaus, remarks of, on foretelling the weather, 6 — 8.
His method of observing the foliation of trees, 9. Ob-
servations on meteoric, tropical, and equinoctial flowers,
155.

Lunar Influence on the weather, examination of, 46 — 55,
58, 59.

Mists, signs of weather from, 106 — 110.

Moon, influence of, on the atmosphere, examined, 46.
Situations in which her influence is particularly exerted,
47, 48. Probabilities of the weather changing at cer-
tain periods of the moon, 49. Combinations generally
producing storms and tempests, 50 — 52. Signs of wea-
ther from, 56— 97. •

Nautical Observations may be made from marine plants,
150. .

North-Wind, nature and effects of, 36.

Notus, or South- Wind, nature and effects of, 36.

Periods of rain, conjectures on, 53, 53.

Phenomena of nature, importance of ascertaining, l.

Plants, miscellaneous observations on, 152. Nautical ob-
servations from aquatic plants, 150.

Rain, signs of, from vegetables, 15 — 17. — animals, 22, &c.
the clouds, 31, &c. — the moon, 56. — the winds, 37
—39, 126— 134.— dew, 39.— appearances of the earth,
39, 40. — inanimate bodies, 41, 43. — the barometers, 70,
*&c. — conjectures on the periods of, 53, 53. — prognos-
tics of the weather from, 111 — 117. — See Weather.

Rainbow, theory of, 116.— signs of weather from, 34,
116. — an analysis of its colours, ibid. 96. — lunar rain-
bows, what, 117.

Rain-gauge, nature and uses of, 88, 89.

Registers of weather, importance of keeping, 92 — 94.

Sdtt 9 simple mode of ascertaininj^the weather by, 42, note.

Sea and Land Breezes, observations on, 142.

Seasons, signs of weather from, 43, &c. 134— 140.— fertile
or barren ones, how indicated, 44, 45. — rules for prog-
nosticating, 60.

Septentrio, or North-Wind, nature and effects of, S6,

160 INDEX, '

Sheep, weather indicated by, 26.

Shepherd, remarks on the duties of, 3.

Shepherd of Banbury's Rules for prognosticating the wet*
ther, 95, &c.

Sky, signs ef weather from, 3! , Sec. 97, 98.

South-Wind, nature and effects of, 36.

Spontaneous Evaporation, what, 29.

SHllingfleet^Mr.) remarks of, on the foliation of trerflO.

Sub-solatius, or East-Wind, effects of, 35. <P

Sun, signs of weather from, 33,34, 95. fV; <

Thermometer, account of its nature and uses; 90 — 9i£. \

To«fcfo,(M.)onlraarinflnence,47. \ v .

Trade-Winds, remarks on, 143. ' :

Trees, remarks on the foliation .of, by Mmmbus, 9— It. By
Mr/Stillmgfleet, 10. Best mode of observing, 13.

Vegetable Barometers, 77.

Vegetables, changes of weather indicated by, 15.

Water-Spouts, account of, 148.

Weather, importance . of predicting the changes of, 5, 6. —
changes of, indicated by vegetables, 15. — by animals,
22, &c. — by clouds, 30, &c. 98 — 105. — by mists, 106
—110.*— by the winds, 36, &c— from appearances of
the earth, 39, 40.-!-other inanimate bodies, 41, 42.— Ob-
servance .of the seasons, 43, &c. — the moon, 56 — 97,—
the moon's influence on, considered, 46 — 55, 58, 59.—
the barometer,. 70, &c. — the hygrometer, 79— 87. —
the rain-gauge* 88, B9. — the thermometer, 90.— from
rain, 111—117.— from winds, 118, &c. 126—- 134.— the
seasons, 134 — 140. — importance of keeping registers
of the weather illustrated, 92 — 94.

West-Wind, nature, and effects of, 36.

Wind, signs of, from dolphins, 25.

Winds, nature of, 35, 118, &c. — signs of weather indicated
by them, 35, 36, &c. 126 — 134. — miscellaneous obser-
vations on the winds, 141.— direction of, 144,* 145.

Winter, mild or severe onu, indications of, 41, 45.

ZephyruSy or the West-wind, nature and effects of, 36.

Harding and Wright, Printers, St. John's Square, London.

miTii

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